Ecosystem services in the Great Lakes.

A comprehensive inventory of ecosystem services across the entire Great Lakes basin is currently lacking and is needed to make informed management decisions. A greater appreciation and understanding of ecosystem services, including both use and non-use services, may have avoided misguided resource management decisions in the past that have resulted in legacies inherited by future generations. Given the interest in ecosystem services and lack of a coherent approach to addressing this topic in the Great Lakes, a summit was convened involving 28 experts working on various aspects of ecosystem services in the Great Lakes. The invited attendees spanned a variety of social and natural sciences. Given the unique status of the Great Lakes as the world's largest collective repository of surface freshwater, and the numerous stressors threatening this valuable resource, timing was propitious to examine ecosystem services. Several themes and recommendations emerged from the summit. There was general consensus that 1) a comprehensive inventory of ecosystem services throughout the Great Lakes is a desirable goal but would require considerable resources; 2) more spatially and temporally intensive data are needed to overcome our data gaps, but the arrangement of data networks and observatories must be well-coordinated; 3) trade-offs must be considered as part of ecosystem services analyses; and 4) formation of a Great Lakes Institute for Ecosystem Services, to provide a hub for research, meetings, and training is desirable. Several challenges also emerged during the summit, which are discussed in the paper.

Macroinvertebrate response and internal phosphorus loading in a Michigan Lake after alum treatment.

Alum treatment is a lake restoration technique that is used to address internal phosphorus (P) loading. We evaluated the macroinvertebrate density and P release rates from sediment cores in Spring Lake, Michigan, 5 yr after an alum treatment and compared the findings with conditions before and 1 yr after application. Total macroinvertebrate density recovered to the near pre-alum level after the decline that was measured in 2006. Community structure also shifted, with the dominant group changing from oligochaetes before alum treatment to chaoborids in 2010. Chironomid density in 2010 was similar to pre-alum density, but this represented a decline from an elevated density measured in 2006. Ceratopogonid density increased in 2010 compared with the prior samplings, but absolute densities were very low compared with other macroinvertebrate groups. Maximum P release rates from sediment cores in 2010 averaged from 1.68 to 2.81 mg P m d under anoxic conditions. These rates are an order of magnitude lower than before alum was applied, indicating the alum application was still effectively reducing P release rates from sediments in Spring Lake. However, the release rates have increased since 2006, suggesting that alum efficacy may be declining. The NaOH-extractable soluble reactive P fraction has increased since 2006, suggesting that the aluminum hydroxide floc is successfully binding P in the sediments. Despite the low release rates of P from the sediment, water column P and chlorophyll concentrations remain elevated in Spring Lake. This points to the continued need for reductions in external P loads to Spring Lake.

An environmental assessment of a small shallow lake (Little Black Lake, MI) threatened by urbanization.

A limnological survey was conducted of Little Black Lake, MI, and its tributaries during summer 2007. This small, shallow lake is located in a rapidly developing area of west Michigan. As such, our analytical approach and recommendations can serve as a model for other similar systems threatened by urbanization. Soluble reactive phosphorus and nitrate concentrations in both the inflows to (during baseflow) and Little Black Lake itself were low (≤0.007 and ≤270 mg/L, respectively). Nutrient concentrations increased during stormflow conditions, although the magnitude of the increase depended on the nutrient and sampling location. Macrophyte growth was extensive throughout most parts of the lake, with Chara and Potamogeton spp. present in most sites; based on the coefficient of conservatism, plant composition was indicative of good water quality conditions. Chlorophyll a concentration averaged 1.7 µg/L in Little Black Lake, with cryptophytes and cyanobacteria being the most dominant members (by biovolume) of the phytoplankton community. The fish community in Little Black Lake was dominated by bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) and pumpkinseed (L. gibbosus), with no invasive species observed. Overall, abiotic and biotic conditions indicate that Little Black Lake is in good ecological health despite increasing pressures of urbanization in its watershed. To maintain this status, it is recommended that the local municipalities develop a comprehensive watershed management plan and implement best management practices to limit nonpoint source pollutant loading to Little Black Lake.

From wetland to farm and back again: phosphorus dynamics of a proposed restoration project.

We studied the phosphorus dynamics in a former wetland, which had been converted to a celery farm, and now consists of two shallow, flooded ponds that are being proposed for aquatic habitat restoration. However, like many agricultural areas, this site is plagued by phosphorus legacy issues. Proposed restoration includes hydrologic reconnection of these ponds to its adjacent stream, which are now isolated from one another by an earthen berm, to create a wetland complex. One of the two flooded ponds was partially dredged, whereas the other one has remained undredged. Water column, sediment pore water, and sediment total phosphorus concentrations were significantly greater in the undredged pond compared to the dredged pond, but in both cases phosphorus levels in the water columns (mean TP 929 vs. 133 µg/L in undredged vs. dredged ponds, respectively) would exacerbate downstream water quality issues if hydrologic reconnection occurred without first addressing the phosphorus issue. Sediment isotherm and maximum sorption data indicated that the sediments are close to phosphorus saturation in the undredged pond; simulated dredging of the cores revealed that exposure of deeper sediment layers would increase sorption capacity. Pore water SRP concentrations increased with sediment depth and were significantly greater in the undredged vs. dredged pond at both the 1-4-cm depth (2249 vs. 112 µg/L) and 14-17-cm depth (5506 vs. 222 µg/L). This study provides a framework for other projects that need to balance the competing demands of habitat restoration vs. water quality when restoring wetlands that have been converted to agricultural production.

Laboratory-determined phosphorus flux from lake sediments as a measure of internal phosphorus loading.

Eutrophication is a water quality issue in lakes worldwide, and there is a critical need to identify and control nutrient sources. Internal phosphorus (P) loading from lake sediments can account for a substantial portion of the total P load in eutrophic, and some mesotrophic, lakes. Laboratory determination of P release rates from sediment cores is one approach for determining the role of internal P loading and guiding management decisions. Two principal alternatives to experimental determination of sediment P release exist for estimating internal load: in situ measurements of changes in hypolimnetic P over time and P mass balance. The experimental approach using laboratory-based sediment incubations to quantify internal P load is a direct method, making it a valuable tool for lake management and restoration. Laboratory incubations of sediment cores can help determine the relative importance of internal vs. external P loads, as well as be used to answer a variety of lake management and research questions. We illustrate the use of sediment core incubations to assess the effectiveness of an aluminum sulfate (alum) treatment for reducing sediment P release. Other research questions that can be investigated using this approach include the effects of sediment resuspension and bioturbation on P release. The approach also has limitations. Assumptions must be made with respect to: extrapolating results from sediment cores to the entire lake; deciding over what time periods to measure nutrient release; and addressing possible core tube artifacts. A comprehensive dissolved oxygen monitoring strategy to assess temporal and spatial redox status in the lake provides greater confidence in annual P loads estimated from sediment core incubations.