Maintenance DNA methylation in pre-meiotic germ cells regulates meiotic prophase by facilitating homologous chromosome pairing.

Heterochromatin-related epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation, facilitate pairing of homologous chromosomes during the meiotic prophase of mammalian spermatogenesis. In pro-spermatogonia, de novo DNA methylation plays a key role in completing meiotic prophase and initiating meiotic division. However, the role of maintenance DNA methylation in the regulation of meiosis, especially in the adult, is not well understood. Here, we reveal that NP95 (also known as UHRF1) and DNMT1 - two essential proteins for maintenance DNA methylation - are co-expressed in spermatogonia and are necessary for meiosis in male germ cells. We find that Np95- or Dnmt1-deficient spermatocytes exhibit spermatogenic defects characterized by synaptic failure during meiotic prophase. In addition, assembly of pericentric heterochromatin clusters in early meiotic prophase, a phenomenon that is required for subsequent pairing of homologous chromosomes, is disrupted in both mutants. Based on these observations, we propose that DNA methylation, established in pre-meiotic spermatogonia, regulates synapsis of homologous chromosomes and, in turn, quality control of male germ cells. Maintenance DNA methylation, therefore, plays a role in ensuring faithful transmission of both genetic and epigenetic information to offspring.

Tsga8 is required for spermatid morphogenesis and male fertility in mice.

During spermatogenesis, intricate gene expression is coordinately regulated by epigenetic modifiers, which are required for differentiation of spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) contained among undifferentiated spermatogonia. We have previously found that KMT2B conveys H3K4me3 at bivalent and monovalent promoters in undifferentiated spermatogonia. Because these genes are expressed late in spermatogenesis or during embryogenesis, we expect that many of them are potentially programmed by KMT2B for future expression. Here, we show that one of the genes targeted by KMT2B, Tsga8, plays an essential role in spermatid morphogenesis. Loss of Tsga8 in mice leads to male infertility associated with abnormal chromosomal distribution in round spermatids, malformation of elongating spermatid heads and spermiation failure. Tsga8 depletion leads to dysregulation of thousands of genes, including the X-chromosome genes that are reactivated in spermatids, and insufficient nuclear condensation accompanied by reductions of TNP1 and PRM1, key factors for histone-to-protamine transition. Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) of spermatids rescued the infertility phenotype, suggesting competency of the spermatid genome for fertilization. Thus, Tsga8 is a KMT2B target that is vitally necessary for spermiogenesis and fertility.

Kmt2b conveys monovalent and bivalent H3K4me3 in mouse spermatogonial stem cells at germline and embryonic promoters.

The mammalian male germline is sustained by a pool of spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) that can transmit both genetic and epigenetic information to offspring. However, the mechanisms underlying epigenetic transmission remain unclear. The histone methyltransferase Kmt2b is highly expressed in SSCs and is required for the SSC-to-progenitor transition. At the stem-cell stage, Kmt2b catalyzes H3K4me3 at bivalent H3K27me3-marked promoters as well as at promoters of a new class of genes lacking H3K27me3, which we call monovalent. Monovalent genes are mainly activated in late spermatogenesis, whereas most bivalent genes are mainly not expressed until embryonic development. These data suggest that SSCs are epigenetically primed by Kmt2b in two distinguishable ways for the upregulation of gene expression both during the spermatogenic program and through the male germline into the embryo. Because Kmt2b is also the major H3K4 methyltransferase for bivalent promoters in embryonic stem cells, we also propose that Kmt2b has the capacity to prime stem cells epigenetically.

An epigenetic switch is crucial for spermatogonia to exit the undifferentiated state toward a Kit-positive identity.

Epigenetic modifications influence gene expression and chromatin remodeling. In embryonic pluripotent stem cells, these epigenetic modifications have been extensively characterized; by contrast, the epigenetic events of tissue-specific stem cells are poorly understood. Here, we define a new epigenetic shift that is crucial for differentiation of murine spermatogonia toward meiosis. We have exploited a property of incomplete cytokinesis, which causes male germ cells to form aligned chains of characteristic lengths, as they divide and differentiate. These chains revealed the stage of spermatogenesis, so the epigenetic differences of various stages could be characterized. Single, paired and medium chain-length spermatogonia not expressing Kit (a marker of differentiating spermatogonia) showed no expression of Dnmt3a2 and Dnmt3b (two de novo DNA methyltransferases); they also lacked the transcriptionally repressive histone modification H3K9me2. By contrast, spermatogonia consisting of ~8-16 chained cells with Kit expression dramatically upregulated Dnmt3a2/3b expression and also displayed increased H3K9me2 modification. To explore the function of these epigenetic changes in spermatogonia in vivo, the DNA methylation machinery was destabilized by ectopic Dnmt3b expression or Np95 ablation. Forced Dnmt3b expression induced expression of Kit; whereas ablation of Np95, which is essential for maintaining DNA methylation, interfered with differentiation and viability only after spermatogonia become Kit positive. These data suggest that the epigenetic status of spermatogonia shifts dramatically during the Kit-negative to Kit-positive transition. This shift might serve as a switch that determines whether spermatogonia self-renew or differentiate.

DNA methylation and gene expression dynamics during spermatogonial stem cell differentiation in the early postnatal mouse testis.

BACKGROUND: In the male germline, neonatal prospermatogonia give rise to spermatogonia, which include stem cell population (undifferentiated spermatogonia) that supports continuous spermatogenesis in adults. Although the levels of DNA methyltransferases change dynamically in the neonatal and early postnatal male germ cells, detailed genome-wide DNA methylation profiles of these cells during the stem cell formation and differentiation have not been reported. RESULTS: To understand the regulation of spermatogonial stem cell formation and differentiation, we examined the DNA methylation and gene expression dynamics of male mouse germ cells at the critical stages: neonatal prospermatogonia, and early postntal (day 7) undifferentiated and differentiating spermatogonia. We found large partially methylated domains similar to those found in cancer cells and placenta in all these germ cells, and high levels of non-CG methylation and 5-hydroxymethylcytosines in neonatal prospermatogonia. Although the global CG methylation levels were stable in early postnatal male germ cells, and despite the reported scarcity of differential methylation in the adult spermatogonial stem cells, we identified many regions showing stage-specific differential methylation in and around genes important for stem cell function and spermatogenesis. These regions contained binding sites for specific transcription factors including the SOX family members. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings show a distinctive and dynamic regulation of DNA methylation during spermatogonial stem cell formation and differentiation in the neonatal and early postnatal testes. Furthermore, we revealed a unique accumulation and distribution of non-CG methylation and 5hmC marks in neonatal prospermatogonia. These findings contrast with the reported scarcity of differential methylation in adult spermatogonial stem cell differentiation and represent a unique phase of male germ cell development.

HP1γ links histone methylation marks to meiotic synapsis in mice.

During meiosis, specific histone modifications at pericentric heterochromatin (PCH), especially histone H3 tri- and dimethylation at lysine 9 (H3K9me3 and H3K9me2, respectively), are required for proper chromosome interactions. However, the molecular mechanism by which H3K9 methylation mediates the synapsis is not yet understood. We have generated a Cbx3-deficient mouse line and performed comparative analysis on Suv39h1/h2-, G9a- and Cbx3-deficient spermatocytes. This study revealed that H3K9me2 at PCH depended on Suv39h1/h2-mediated H3K9me3 and its recognition by the Cbx3 gene product HP1γ. We further found that centromere clustering and synapsis were commonly affected in G9a- and Cbx3-deficient spermatocytes. These genetic observations suggest that HP1γ/G9a-dependent PCH-mediated centromere clustering is an axis for proper chromosome interactions during meiotic prophase. We propose that the role of the HP1γ/G9a axis is to retain centromeric regions of unpaired homologous chromosomes in close alignment and facilitate progression of their pairing in early meiotic prophase. This study also reveals considerable plasticity in the interplay between different histone modifications and suggests that such stepwise and dynamic epigenetic modifications may play a pivotal role in meiosis.

Splice variant HE4-V3 expression is associated with favorable prognosis in pulmonary adenocarcinoma.

The human epididymis 4 (HE4) gene product, also known as whey-acidic-protein four-disulfide core domain protein 2, was identified as the transcript expressed in the epididymis and respiratory tract. HE4 is also expressed in lung adenocarcinoma. We investigated mRNA expressions of full-length HE4 and splice variants in lung adenocarcinoma, and the clinical impact of these genes was evaluated. One hundred and fifty-two patients with pulmonary adenocarcinoma underwent surgery in our institute from 2000 to 2008. We employed immunohistochemical analysis to determine the expression of HE4 and molecular analysis to evaluate full-length HE4 or splice variant gene expression in pulmonary adenocarcinoma. All of the 152 cases were full-length HE4 mRNA-positive; 88 of the 152 (57.9%) were HE4-V1-positive, and 140 of the 152 (92.1%) were HE4-V3-positive. Regarding the relationship between the clinicopathological characteristics of patients and these gene expressions, the histological subtype, tumor size, and vascular invasion were significantly associated with HE4-V3 expression. HE4-V3 expression was also closely correlated with the prognosis. The 5-year disease-free survival in the HE4-V3 high expression group showed a significantly favorable prognosis compared with the low expression group (p = 0.02). The 5-year overall survival rate in the HE4-V3 high expression group was significantly higher than in the HE4-V3 low expression group (p = 0.028). These data showed that high-level HE4-V3 expression is associated with a favorable prognosis in lung adenocarcinoma. Further investigation of HE4 splice variants may offer a new insight into this possibility.

Serum level of HE4 is closely associated with pulmonary adenocarcinoma progression.

The human epididymis 4 (HE4) protein is expressed in the epididymis and respiratory tract. We previously reported that HE4 is also expressed in pulmonary adenocarcinoma. The purpose of this study was to investigate serum levels of HE4 as a biological marker in pulmonary adenocarcinoma. As the trained set, 102 patients with pulmonary adenocarcinoma who underwent surgery in our institute from 2008 to 2011 were evaluated. They were compared with 58 healthy controls and 16 cases of benign lung disease. In the validation, we used 104 patients with pulmonary adenocarcinoma operated on between 2000 and 2007. Postoperative changes of serum HE4 levels were investigated in 35 patients. The level of HE4 was determined by enzyme immunometric assay and compared with clinicopathological factors. In the trained set, HE4 levels in sera in pulmonary adenocarcinoma were significantly higher than in healthy controls and benign lung disease. Receiver operating characteristic curve showed that HE4 was a good discriminator of pulmonary adenocarcinoma (cut-off point, 50.3 pM; area under curve, 0.825; 95 % confidence interval, 0.76-0.89, p < 0.001). In the validation set, serum HE4 levels were significantly correlated with age, nodal status, and carcinoembryonic antigen. Furthermore, postoperative increase of HE4 serum levels showed a significant correlation with recurrence (p = 0.032). The 5-year overall survival rate was 52.6 % in the HE4-positive group compared with 97.1 % in the HE4-negative group (p = 0.001). These data showed that HE4 expression in sera is associated with progression of pulmonary adenocarcinoma and a possible biomarker.

Human epididymis protein 4 is a new biomarker to predict the prognosis of progressive fibrosing interstitial lung disease.

BACKGROUND: The clinical course and prognosis of progressive fibrosing interstitial lung diseases (PF-ILDs) vary between individuals. Notably, predictive serum biomarkers for disease management are needed. Serum human epididymis protein 4 (HE4) is reportedly elevated in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF); however, its clinical utility remains unknown. We evaluated the potential of serum HE4 as a biomarker for patients with PF-ILD. METHODS: Serum HE4 was measured in a retrospective study consisting of 34 patients with PF-ILD and 40 healthy volunteers. The relationship between serum HE4 levels and clinical parameters or prognosis was investigated. To validate the significance of results obtained, a prospective observational study was performed in 37 patients presenting PF-ILD and 40 control patients without PF-ILD. RESULTS: Serum HE4 levels were higher in patients with PF-ILD than in healthy volunteers (P < 0.01). Moreover, serum HE4 levels correlated with the extent of honeycombing on chest high-resolution computed tomography (r = 0.41, P = 0.015). In multivariate analysis using the Cox proportional hazard model, higher HE4 levels (>238 pmol/L) were associated with an elevated mortality risk; hazard ratio (HR) 7.27, 95% CI 1.56-34.0, P = 0.01 in the derivation cohort; HR 44.3, 95% CI 4.19-468, P < 0.01 in validation cohort. CONCLUSIONS: Serum HE4 levels may serve as a new diagnostic and prognostic biomarker for patients with PF-ILD.

Father-to-offspring transmission of extremely long NOTCH2NLC repeat expansions with contractions: genetic and epigenetic profiling with long-read sequencing.

BACKGROUND: GGC repeat expansions in NOTCH2NLC are associated with neuronal intranuclear inclusion disease. Very recently, asymptomatic carriers with NOTCH2NLC repeat expansions were reported. In these asymptomatic individuals, the CpG island in NOTCH2NLC is hypermethylated, suggesting that two factors repeat length and DNA methylation status should be considered to evaluate pathogenicity. Long-read sequencing can be used to simultaneously profile genomic and epigenomic alterations. We analyzed four sporadic cases with NOTCH2NLC repeat expansion and their phenotypically normal parents. The native genomic DNA that retains base modification was sequenced on a per-trio basis using both PacBio and Oxford Nanopore long-read sequencing technologies. A custom workflow was developed to evaluate DNA modifications. With these two technologies combined, long-range DNA methylation information was integrated with complete repeat DNA sequences to investigate the genetic origins of expanded GGC repeats in these sporadic cases. RESULTS: In all four families, asymptomatic fathers had longer expansions (median: 522, 390, 528 and 650 repeats) compared with their affected offspring (median: 93, 117, 162 and 140 repeats, respectively). These expansions are much longer than the disease-causing range previously reported (in general, 41-300 repeats). Repeat lengths were extremely variable in the father, suggesting somatic mosaicism. Instability is more frequent in alleles with uninterrupted pure GGCs. Single molecule epigenetic analysis revealed complex DNA methylation patterns and epigenetic heterogeneity. We identified an aberrant gain-of-methylation region (2.2 kb in size beyond the CpG island and GGC repeats) in asymptomatic fathers. This methylated region was unmethylated in the normal allele with bilateral transitional zones with both methylated and unmethylated CpG dinucleotides, which may be protected from methylation to ensure NOTCH2NLC expression. CONCLUSIONS: We clearly demonstrate that the four sporadic NOTCH2NLC-related cases are derived from the paternal GGC repeat contraction associated with demethylation. The entire genetic and epigenetic landscape of the NOTCH2NLC region was uncovered using the custom workflow of long-read sequence data, demonstrating the utility of this method for revealing epigenetic/mutational changes in repetitive elements, which are difficult to characterize by conventional short-read/bisulfite sequencing methods. Our approach should be useful for biomedical research, aiding the discovery of DNA methylation abnormalities through the entire genome.

A CTX family cell adhesion molecule, JAM4, is expressed in stem cell and progenitor cell populations of both male germ cell and hematopoietic cell lineages.

Stem cells are maintained in an undifferentiated state by interacting with a microenvironment known as the "niche," which is comprised of various secreted and membrane proteins. Our goal was to identify niche molecules participating in stem cell-stem cell and/or stem cell-supporting cell interactions. Here, we isolated genes encoding secreted and membrane proteins from purified male germ stem cells using a signal sequence trap approach. Among the genes identified, we focused on the junctional adhesion molecule 4 (JAM4), an immunoglobulin type cell adhesion molecule. JAM4 protein was actually localized to the plasma membrane in male germ cells. JAM4 expression was downregulated as cells differentiated in both germ cell and hematopoietic cell lineages. To analyze function in vivo, we generated JAM4-deficient mice. Histological analysis of testes from homozygous nulls did not show obvious abnormalities, nor did liver and kidney tissues, both of which strongly express JAM4. The numbers of hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow were indistinguishable between wild-type and mutant mice, as was male germ cell development. These results suggest that JAM4 is expressed in stem cells and progenitor cells but that other cell adhesion molecules may substitute for JAM4 function in JAM4-deficient mice both in male germ cell and hematopoietic lineages.

Lack of whey acidic protein (WAP) four-disulfide core domain protease inhibitor 2 (WFDC2) causes neonatal death from respiratory failure in mice.

Respiratory failure is a life-threatening problem for pre-term and term infants, yet many causes remain unknown. Here, we present evidence that whey acidic protein (WAP) four-disulfide core domain protease inhibitor 2 (Wfdc2), a protease inhibitor previously unrecognized in respiratory disease, may be a causal factor in infant respiratory failure. Wfdc2 transcripts are detected in the embryonic lung and analysis of a Wfdc2-GFP knock-in mouse line shows that both basal and club cells, and type II alveolar epithelial cells (AECIIs), express Wfdc2 neonatally. Wfdc2-null-mutant mice display progressive atelectasis after birth with a lethal phenotype. Mutant lungs have multiple defects, including impaired cilia and the absence of mature club cells from the tracheo-bronchial airways, and malformed lamellar bodies in AECIIs. RNA sequencing shows significant activation of a pro-inflammatory pathway, but with low-quantity infiltration of mononuclear cells in the lung. These data demonstrate that Wfdc2 function is vitally important for lung aeration at birth and that gene deficiency likely causes failure of the lung mucosal barrier.

EPC1/TIP60-Mediated Histone Acetylation Facilitates Spermiogenesis in Mice.

Global histone hyperacetylation is suggested to play a critical role for replacement of histones by transition proteins and protamines to compact the genome during spermiogenesis. However, the underlying mechanisms for hyperacetylation-mediated histone replacement remains poorly understood. Here, we report that EPC1 and TIP60, two critical components of the mammalian nucleosome acetyltransferase of H4 (NuA4) complexes, are coexpressed in male germ cells. Strikingly, genetic ablation of either Epc1 or Tip60 disrupts hyperacetylation and impairs histone replacement, in turn causing aberrant spermatid development. Taking these observations together, we reveal an essential role of the NuA4 complexes for histone hyperacetylation and subsequent compaction of the spermatid genome.

The niche for spermatogonial stem cells in the mammalian testis.

The theory of the "stem cell niche" was originally proposed for the hematopoietic system, and the existence of the niche as an actual entity was proved in the Drosophila germ cell system. Historically, mammalian spermatogenesis has been studied extensively as a prime example of a stem cell system, and studies have established a stem-progenitor hierarchical order of spermatogonia. In the niche on the basal lamina of seminiferous tubules, spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) are secluded from the outside world and divide constantly to self-renew and differentiate. During the last 10 years, the development and exploitation of the germ cell transplantation method has expanded our understanding of the nature of SSCs and their niches. The ability to maintain and expand SSCs in vitro, which recently became possible, has further reinforced this research area as a mecca of stem cell biology. Nonetheless, the mammalian germ stem cell and its niche remain to be defined more strictly and precisely. We are still on a journey in search of the real stem cell and its true niche.

Epigenetic regulation in stem cell development, cell fate conversion, and reprogramming.

Stem cells are identified classically by an in vivo transplantation assay plus additional characterization, such as marker analysis, linage-tracing and in vitro/ex vivo differentiation assays. Stem cell lines have been derived, in vitro, from adult tissues, the inner cell mass (ICM), epiblast, and male germ stem cells, providing intriguing insight into stem cell biology, plasticity, heterogeneity, metastable state, and the pivotal point at which stem cells irreversibly differentiate to non-stem cells. During the past decade, strategies for manipulating cell fate have revolutionized our understanding about the basic concept of cell differentiation: stem cell lines can be established by introducing transcription factors, as with the case for iPSCs, revealing some of the molecular interplay of key factors during the course of phenotypic changes. In addition to de-differentiation approaches for establishing stem cells, another method has been developed whereby induced expression of certain transcription factors and/or micro RNAs artificially converts differentiated cells from one committed lineage to another; notably, these cells need not transit through a stem/progenitor state. The molecular cues guiding such cell fate conversion and reprogramming remain largely unknown. As differentiation and de-differentiation are directly linked to epigenetic changes, we overview cell fate decisions, and associated gene and epigenetic regulations.

RNA Binding Protein Nanos2 Organizes Post-transcriptional Buffering System to Retain Primitive State of Mouse Spermatogonial Stem Cells.

In many adult tissues, homeostasis relies on self-renewing stem cells that are primed for differentiation. The reconciliation mechanisms of these characteristics remain a fundamental question in stem cell biology. We propose that regulation at the post-transcriptional level is essential for homeostasis in murine spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs). Here, we show that Nanos2, an evolutionarily conserved RNA-binding protein, works with other cellular messenger ribonucleoprotein (mRNP) components to ensure the primitive status of SSCs through a dual mechanism that involves (1) direct recruitment and translational repression of genes that promote spermatogonial differentiation and (2) repression of the target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), a well-known negative pathway for SSC self-renewal, by sequestration of the core factor mTOR in mRNPs. This mechanism links mRNA turnover to mTORC1 signaling through Nanos2-containing mRNPs and establishes a post-transcriptional buffering system to facilitate SSC homeostasis in the fluctuating environment within the seminiferous tubule.

The first round of mouse spermatogenesis is a distinctive program that lacks the self-renewing spermatogonia stage.

Mammalian spermatogenesis is maintained by a continuous supply of differentiating cells from self-renewing stem cells. The stem cell activity resides in a small subset of primitive germ cells, the undifferentiated spermatogonia. However, the relationship between the establishment of this population and the initiation of differentiation in the developing testes remains unclear. In this study, we have investigated this issue by using the unique expression of Ngn3, which is expressed specifically in the undifferentiated spermatogonia, but not in the differentiating spermatogonia or their progenitors, the gonocytes. Our lineage analyses demonstrate that the first round of mouse spermatogenesis initiates directly from gonocytes, without passing through the Ngn3-expressing stage (Ngn3- lineage). By contrast, the subsequent rounds of spermatogenesis are derived from Ngn3-positive undifferentiated spermatogonia, which are also immediate descendents of the gonocytes and represent the stem cell function (Ngn3+ lineage). Thus, in mouse spermatogenesis, the state of the undifferentiated spermatogonia is not an inevitable step but is a developmental option that ensures continuous sperm production. In addition, the segregation of gonocytes into undifferentiated spermatogonia (Ngn3+ lineage) or differentiating spermatogonia (Ngn3- lineage) is topographically related to the establishment of the seminiferous epithelial cycle, thus suggesting a role of somatic components in the establishment of stem cells.

Loss of Tie2 receptor compromises embryonic stem cell-derived endothelial but not hematopoietic cell survival.

Tie2 is a receptor-type tyrosine kinase expressed on hematopoietic stem cells and endothelial cells. We used cultured embryonic stem (ES) cells to determine the function of Tie2 during early vascular development and hematopoiesis. Upon differentiation, the ES cell-derived Tie2+ Flk1+ fraction was enriched for hematopoietic and endothelial progenitor cells. To investigate lymphatic differentiation, we used a monoclonal antibody against LYVE-1 and found that LYVE-1+ cells derived from Tie2+ Flk1+ cells possessed various characteristics of lymphatic endothelial cells. To determine whether Tie2 played a role in this process, we analyzed differentiation of Tie2-/- ES cells. Although the initial numbers of LYVE-1+ and PECAM-1+ cells derived from Tie2-/- cells did not vary significantly, the number of both decreased dramatically upon extended culturing. Such decreases were rescued by treatment with a caspase inhibitor, suggesting that reductions were due to apoptosis as a consequence of a lack of Tie2 signaling. Interestingly, Tie2-/- ES cells did not show measurable defects in development of the hematopoietic system, suggesting that Tie2 is not essential for hematopoietic cell development.

Spatial analysis of germ stem cell development in Oct-4/EGFP transgenic mice.

Questions persist regarding male germ stem cells and how they mature during the prespermatogenic period of testicular development. We successfully labeled the prespermatogonia with green fluorescence protein (GFP) by using Oct-4 enhancer/promoter. This study shows that GFP was specifically expressed in prespermatogonia, spermatogonia and spermatids that faithfully reproduce the endogenous expression of Oct-4. Histochemical analysis revealed that most of the TRA98-positive gonocytes are also positive for GFP. However, the frequency of GFP expressing cells out of TRA98 expressing cells decreased together with the maturation of gonocytes in the first week after birth. To compare the stem cell activity between GFP-positive and -negative populations, we performed a transplantation of sorted cells into testes from an individual population. Colonization efficiency of germ cells from a GFP-positive population resulted in a 30-fold increase in colonization compared with a GFP-negative population. Since the expression of Oct-4 in prespermtogonia correlates well with the stem activity, Oct-4 might be a crucial molecule in the stem cell property of spermatogonia but not in cell survival.

Derivation and morphological characterization of mouse spermatogonial stem cell lines.

Spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs), having yet to possess decisive markers, can only be detected retrospectively by transplantation assay. It was reported recently that mouse gonocytes collected from DBA/2 and ICR neonates propagated in vitro. This cultured germ cell, named the germline stem cell (GS cell), produced functional sperm to make progeny when transplanted into recipient mouse testes. Here we show that GS cell lines can be established not only from neonatal testes but also from the testis of adult mice. We also confirmed that GS cells once transplanted into a host testis can be recovered to resume in vitro expansion, indicating that they are convertible mutually with SSCs in adult testes. Confocal laser microscopic examination showed GS cells resemble undifferentiated spermatogonia in the adult testis. This unique cell line could be useful for research in germ cell biology and applicable as a new tool for the genetic engineering of animals.