[Supporting life of Pachydactylus turneri in a projected experiment aboard robotic spacecraft: choosing feed].

An experiment was carried out to validate and select feed to be supplied to Pachydactylus turneri in a 30-day orbital flight of robotic spacecraft BION-M1. Larvae of two Tenebrionidae species, i.e., Tenebrio molitor and Zophobas were tested for survivability, tolerance of hunger and cold, ability to stick to and move along different surfaces. Tenebrio molitor was shown to be best suited. A special feeder that will sustain the beetle over 30 days was designed. The experiment provided new data about Tenebrionidae biology and suggested the feeding technology for a 2-month space experiment with Pachydactylus turneri.

[On the genetic uniformity of the genus Trichoplax (Placozoa)]. / O geneticheskom odnoobrazii v rode Trichoplax (Placozoa).

Fragments of the nuclear and mitochondrial genes for the large-subunit rRNA were compared for Trichoplax sp. and T. adhaerens. High similarity was observed for their sequences, suggesting that different Trichoplax isolates belong to one species.

Comparative analysis of the skeletal changes in tetrapods after brief influence of microgravity.

Experiments involving lower tetrapods demonstrate that the degree of skeletal demineralization in spaceflights is related to the type of environmental behaviour of the animal. Probably the sensing of support reaction decreases the negative effect of spaceflight upon the bone tissue.

[The neuronal mechanisms of the defensive reaction to stimulation of the cutaneous nerve in the freshwater snail]. / Neironnye mekhanizmy oboronitel'noi reaktsii na razdrazhenie kozhnogo nerva u presnovodnoi ulitki.

The whole body withdrawal reaction of freshwater snail Planorbarius corneus consists of two phases. In the first phase the shell is rapidly moved down to cover the head, in the second one the body is slowly retracted into the shell. The columellar muscle is involved in this behaviour. Motoneurons of the columellar muscle are identified in the cerebral, parietal and pedal ganglia. In the preparation of the central nervous system connected with the columellar muscle it is demonstrated that stimulation of the lip nerve evoked a biphasic motoneuron excitation responsible for two phases of the muscle contraction. A similar biphasic excitation of the motoneurons could arise spontaneously. This implies that the whole body withdrawal reaction is, at least partly, a fixed act generated by a central mechanism (a central program) which is triggered by a sensory stimulus. The central mechanism of the withdrawal reaction could be also activated by a depolarization of some columellar motoneurons. This suggests that the central mechanism received a feedback from the motoneurons.

[The neuronal mechanisms of the escape reaction to stimulation of the statocyst receptors in the freshwater snail]. / Neironnye mekhanizmy oboronitel'noi reaktsii na razdrazhenie retseptorov statotsistov u presnovodnoi ulitki.

Tilts of the freshwater snail Planorbarius corneus, resulting in statocyst receptor stimulation, induced the defensive reaction including pulling down of the shell, shortening of the foot, inhibition of locomotion and feeding. The preparation of the central nervous system has demonstrated that many inter- and motoneurons from different ganglia were involved in this reaction. Usually the reaction was of "all or none" manner. The repeated reaction of the second tilt could be evoked not earlier than 10-20 s after the previous one. It is concluded that the defensive reaction to statocyst receptor stimulation is a "fixed act" determined by a special central mechanism (a central program). The reactions to stimulation of statocyst receptors and skin nerve are proved to be generated by the same mechanism.

Defense reaction in the pond snail Planorbis corneus. I. Activity of the shell-moving and respiratory systems.

1. In the intact pond snail Planorbis corneus, tactile or electrical stimulation of the skin evoked a biphasic general defense reaction. A weak stimulation evoked only the first phase of the reaction, represented as a fast pulling of the shell towards the head. With stronger stimulation, this phase was followed by the second phase that was comprised of three components: detachment from the substrate, slow retraction of the body into the shell, and letting out of air from the lung through the pneumostome. 2. About 70 motor neurons (MNs) of the columellar muscle have been revealed in different ganglia by means of their cobalt back-filling through the cut columellar nerve. A complicated pattern of electrical coupling was found for different groups of MNs. Excitation of individual MNs, evoked by current injection, resulted in contraction of the columellar muscle (CNS-columellar muscle preparation). The strongest contraction was evoked by the cerebral MNs; fast small contraction by the parietal MNs; and slow, long-latency contraction, by the pedal MNs. 3. In the same preparation, electrical stimulation of the cutaneous (lip) nerve evoked biphasic contraction of the columellar muscle (a first phase lasting approximately 3 s, and a second phase of up to 1 min). The temporal pattern of this response was similar to that of the defense reaction in the intact animal. A weak stimulation evoked only the first phases of the reaction, while a stronger stimulation evoked both phases. The amplitude of both the first and the second phase was graded with the strength of stimulation.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Defense reaction in the pond snail Planorbis corneus. II. Central pattern generator.

1. In the isolated CNS of the pond snail Planorbis corneus, spontaneous bursts of activity in the motor neurons (MNs) supplying the columellar muscle were occasionally observed. The biphasic pattern of this activity, with a shorter (3-5 s) initial burst and longer (20-40 s) subsequent burst, was similar to that of the motor output during the general ("whole-body") defense reaction. In preparations consisting of the CNS isolated with the columellar muscle or with the lung, spontaneous biphasic contractions of the muscle as well as openings of the pneumostome with a temporal pattern characteristic of the defense reaction were observed. These findings demonstrated that the efferent pattern of the defense reaction in the snail is, to a large extent, produced by a special neuronal mechanism (the central pattern generator, CPG) triggered by the sensory input, rather than generated by ongoing processing of sensory input. The CPG consists of two components responsible for generation of two phases of the defense reaction. A characteristic feature of the CPG is that the magnitude of its response depends in a graded fashion on the strength of the initial stimulus. 2. In the pleural ganglia there are at least two electrically connected interneurons (DRN1s) that play an important role in generation of the first phase of the defense reaction. Processes of the DRN1s form a ring passing through all (except pedal and buccal) ganglia. The DRN1s received an excitatory input when a peripheral nerve was stimulated. They generated action potentials of long (0.2-2 s) duration. The DRN1 from the right ganglion was studied in more detail.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Defense reaction in the pond snail Planorbis corneus. III. Response to input from statocysts.

1. In the intact pond snail Planorbis corneus, a rapid tilt in any plane evoked a defense reaction consisting of a fast movement of the shell towards the head, shortening of the foot, inhibition of locomotion and of rhythmical feeding movements. This reaction was similar to the first phase of the general defense reaction of Planorbis to cutaneous stimulation. 2. A method has been developed for inclination of the isolated CNS in space (up to 90 degrees) and simultaneous intracellular recordings from different neurons. 3. The statocyst receptor cells (SRCs) responded both phasically and tonically to the tilt. The SRCs differ in their spatial zones of sensitivity. 4. Essential manifestations of the defense reaction to the input from statocysts could be observed in the in vitro preparation of the CNS isolated with statocysts. Both tilting of the CNS and electrical stimulation of individual SRCs elicited an excitatory response in numerous neurons from different ganglia, including motor neurons (MNs) of the columellar muscle. This response was of "all-or-none" nature, and could be evoked by electrical stimulation of any SRC. The response was followed by a long (10-20 s) period of refractoriness. 5. Activation of SRCs resulted also in excitation of the giant dopaminergic cell in the left pedal ganglion (related to the control of respiration), in inhibition of the feeding rhythm generator, and in inhibition of the pedal neurons responsible for activation of the ciliary locomotor system. 6. Combined stimulation of two inputs able to evoke a defense reaction, i.e., those from the statocyst and from cutaneous nerve, revealed a strong interdependence of their central effects.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)