Noninvasive molecular imaging of apoptosis in vivo using a modified firefly luciferase substrate, Z-DEVD-aminoluciferin.

Apoptosis is a highly regulated process of programmed cell death essential for normal physiology. Dysregulation of apoptosis contributes to the development and progression of various diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and chronic heart failure. Quantitative noninvasive imaging of apoptosis in preclinical models would allow for dynamic longitudinal screening of compounds and facilitates a more rapid determination of therapeutic efficacy. In this study, we report the in vivo characterization of Z-DEVD-aminoluciferin, a modified firefly luciferase substrate that in apoptotic cells is cleaved by caspase-3 to liberate aminoluciferin, which can be consumed by luciferase to generate a luminescent signal. In two oncology models, namely SKOV3-luc and MDA-MB-231-luc-LN, at 24, 48, and 72 h after treatment with docetaxel, animals were injected with Z-DEVD-aminoluciferin and bioluminescent images were acquired. Significantly more light was detected at 24 (P<0.05), 48 (P<0.01), and 72 h (P<0.01) in the docetaxel-treated group compared with the vehicle-treated group, with caspase-3 activation at these time points confirmed using immunohistochemistry. Importantly, whereas significant differences between groups were detected as early as 24 h after treatment by molecular imaging, caliper measurements were unable to detect a difference for 4-5 additional days. Taken together, these data show that in vivo imaging of apoptosis using Z-DEVD-aminoluciferin could provide a sensitive and rapid method for early detection of drug efficacy, which could potentially be used by numerous therapeutic programs.

Relevance of the ferret model of Helicobacter-induced gastritis to evaluation of antibacterial therapies.

OBJECTIVES: The goals of the study were 1) to evaluate the efficacy of clinically relevant antibacterial therapies in the ferret model of Helicobacter-induced gastritis and 2) to compare these results to the efficacy achieved clinically in humans. METHODS: Ferrets were inoculated with H. mustelae, and gastritis was allowed to develop. The double therapy of clarithromycin and omeprazole and the triple therapies of clarithromycin or amoxicillin with metronidazole and omeprazole were administered. Efficacy was evaluated by Helicobacter burden cultured from biopsy samples and by histopathological evaluation of Helicobacter burden and gastric inflammation with pylorus and fundus samples obtained 4 wk after the end of antibacterial therapy. RESULTS: Clarithromycin-based double and triple therapies significantly reduced Helicobacter burden and decreased gastric inflammation. Clarithromycin-based double therapy was more effective than amoxicillin-based triple therapy. Reduction of the length of clarithromycin therapy from 14 to 7 days decreased efficacy. Antibacterial therapies in the ferret did not produce eradication rates comparable to clinical results, even though the serum concentrations of clarithromycin in ferret were in excess of concentrations used in humans. Relapse of Helicobacter infection after the end of therapy occurred in some cases. CONCLUSIONS: Although the ferret model of Helicobacter gastric infection underestimated the clinical efficacy of antibacterial treatments in humans, the model was valuable for comparing the relative efficacy of antibacterial therapies.

Efficacy of ABT-719, a 2-pyridone antimicrobial, against enterococci, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in experimental murine pyelonephritis.

ABT-719 is a 2-pyridone antimicrobial which inhibits DNA gyrase activity. It has considerable subcutaneous (sc) and oral efficacy in the treatment of experimental pyelonephritis induced in carrageenan-treated mice by clinical isolates of Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Therapeutic ED50s, defined here as producing a 2 log10 reduction in kidney bacterial burden, provide a reliable end point for comparison of drug efficacy in this experimental infection. Therapeutic ED50s for ABT-719 against these infections were equal to or up to ten-fold lower than those for ciprofloxacin, used as a reference because of similarity in mode of action. Against E. faecalis, the therapeutic ED50s for ABT-719 were 4.5-13.6 mg/kg.day for sc administration and 6.8-8.9 mg/kg.day for oral administration. ABT-719 was more potent than ciprofloxacin and vancomycin against the E. faecalis strains, which showed ciprofloxacin and vancomycin resistance covering a range of MICs. Against E. faecium, the therapeutic ED50s for ABT-719 were 8.8 mg/kg.day (sc) and 9.4 mg/kg.day (oral). Against an isolate of E. faecium showing ciprofloxacin and vancomycin resistance the ED50 for ABT-719 to achieve a 1 log10 reduction in kidney bacterial burden was 17.9 mg/kg.day by sc administration. While ABT-719 had lower efficacy against this isolate than against others, ciprofloxacin and vancomycin failed to show efficacy. Against E. coli, the therapeutic ED50 for ABT-719 was 1.1 mg/kg.day (oral), and against P. aeruginosa, this value was 2.7 mg/kg.day (oral) with values against both of these pathogens similar to those for ciprofloxacin. ABT-719, which represents the new 2-pyridone compound class, has promise for the treatment of urinary tract infections, as suggested by the significant efficacy seen against experimental pyelonephritis caused by E. coli, P. aeruginosa and susceptible and resistant enterococci.

Efficacies of ABT-719 and related 2-pyridones, members of a new class of antibacterial agents, against experimental bacterial infections.

The 2-pyridones are a new class of broad-spectrum orally bioavailable antibacterial agents. These compounds are potent bacterial DNA gyrase inhibitors which differ from fluoroquinolones by placement of the nitrogen atom in the ring juncture. ABT-719 is an S isomer and a representative 2-pyridone. ABT-719 administered orally or subcutaneously was 4- to 10-fold more effective than ciprofloxacin against Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Streptococcus pyogenes infections in normal mice. ABT-719 was equivalent in efficacy to ciprofloxacin for treatment of gram-negative bacterial infections caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Escherichia coli. The racemate and R forms of ABT-719 produced similar results against gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial infections. The 50% effective doses of ABT-719 were at least threefold lower than those of ciprofloxacin for therapy of intracellular infections caused by Salmonella typhimurium or Listeria monocytogenes. In immunosuppressed mice, ABT-719 was more effective than ciprofloxacin against quinolone-sensitive S. aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, and Enterococcus faecium. The pharmacokinetic properties of ABT-719 were consistent with its relative efficacy. The 2-pyridones are potent, orally available antibacterial agents with efficacy against gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial infections in mice.

Dynamics of clarithromycin and azithromycin efficacies against experimental Haemophilus influenzae pulmonary infection.

The dynamics of clarithromycin and azithromycin efficacy against pulmonary Haemophilus influenzae infection in rats were evaluated. Efficacy was measured by reduction in pulmonary H. influenzae burden on days 3 and 7 postinoculation. Clarithromycin therapy was effective on day 3 or 7 of therapy, while azithromycin was effective on day 7 but not on day 3 of therapy. Both macrolides produced marked efficacy against all six strains of H. influenzae tested, including four strains for which MICs were above the susceptible breakpoint (8 microgram/ml) concentration of clarithromycin. The two macrolides demonstrated markedly different pharmacokinetic characteristics, with clarithromycin present in both blood and tissue, while azithromycin was concentrated primarily in tissue. During pulmonary infection in rats, H. influenzae was found in both intracellular locations and an extracellular location in the lung. Blood concentrations of clarithromycin and azithromycin approximated human pharmacokinetics, and the blood concentrations for either macrolide rarely exceeded MICs for H. influenzae. At dosages producing blood concentrations similar to values achieved clinically, clarithromycin produced efficacy on day 3 of therapy, while both clarithromycin and azithromycin were equally effective on day 7. The different dynamics of clarithromycin and azithromycin suggest that length of therapy should be considered as a key parameter in evaluations of drug efficacy.

In vivo efficacy of ABT-255 against drug-sensitive and -resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains.

Current therapy for pulmonary tuberculosis involves 6 months of treatment with isoniazid, pyrazinamide, rifampin, and ethambutol or streptomycin for reliable treatment efficacy. The long treatment period increases the probability of noncompliance, leading to the generation of multidrug-resistant isolates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. A treatment option that significantly shortened the course of therapy, or a new class of antibacterial effective against drug-resistant M. tuberculosis would be of value. ABT-255 is a novel 2-pyridone antibacterial agent which demonstrates in vitro potency and in vivo efficacy against drug-susceptible and drug-resistant M. tuberculosis strains. By the Alamar blue reduction technique, the MIC of ABT-255 against susceptible strains of M. tuberculosis ranged from 0.016 to 0.031 microg/ml. The MIC of ABT-255 against rifampin- or ethambutol-resistant M. tuberculosis isolates was 0.031 microg/ml. In a murine model of pulmonary tuberculosis, 4 weeks of oral ABT-255 therapy produced a 2- to 5-log10 reduction in viable drug-susceptible M. tuberculosis counts from lung tissue. Against drug-resistant strains of M. tuberculosis, ABT-255 produced a 2- to 3-log10 reduction in viable bacterial counts from lung tissue. ABT-255 is a promising new antibacterial agent with activity against M. tuberculosis.

Efficacies of ABT-773, a new ketolide, against experimental bacterial infections.

ABT-773 is a novel ketolide effective against antibacterial-resistant respiratory tract pathogens. The pharmacokinetic profile of ABT-773 was studied in rats and consisted of a mean peak concentration in plasma of 1.07 microg/ml and an area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) of 12.03 microg. h/ml when the compound was delivered at a dose of 25 mg/kg of body weight. It concentrated in rat lung tissue, with a lung tissue-to-plasma ratio of 29 based on the AUC. In acute systemic infections in mice, ABT-773 showed efficacy against macrolide-susceptible strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, S. pyogenes, and Listeria monocytogenes. Additionally, ABT-773 improved the survival of mice infected with resistant S. pneumoniae containing either the ermB gene, the mefE gene, or altered penicillin binding protein genes. In a rat lung model of infection, ABT-773 demonstrated 50% effective doses lower than those of comparator macrolides when evaluated against the following strains of S. pneumoniae: a macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin B-susceptible strain, an ermB strain, and an mefE strain. ABT-773 was also effective against Haemophilus influenzae lung infections in rats. Thus, ABT-773 may prove to be a useful new antibacterial agent for the treatment of respiratory tract infections.