Integrated analysis of viral blips, residual viremia, and associated factors in people with HIV: Results from a retrospective cohort study.

The etiology of viral blips is not yet fully elucidated. One of the hypotheses is that blips reflect variations in residual viremia (RV) near the detectability threshold. In this study, we evaluated whether RV is associated with viral blips and which factors are associated with RV. All treatment regimens in 2010-2020 consisting of two nucleos(-t)ide reverse transcriptase inhibitors and one anchor (integrase strand transfer inhibitor [INSTI], non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor [NNRTI], or protease inhibitor [PI]) in people with HIV (PWH) were evaluated for RV (detectable viremia <50 cp/mL) and blips (isolated viral loads [VLs] 50-499 cp/mL between measurements <50 cp/mL). All medical records were reviewed and regimens in which a VL ≥ 50 cp/mL was deemed to result from non-adherence (based on the documented conclusion by the treating physician) were excluded. Factors associated with blips and RV were identified using generalized linear mixed models. In total, 24 518 VLs from 1658 PWH were analyzed. VLs were measured during INSTI- (n = 5119; 20.9%), PI- (n = 8935; 36.4%), and NNRTI-use (n = 10 464; 42.7%). VLs were categorized as blips in 1.4% (n = 332). The 24,186 non-blip VLs were RNAneg (no RV) (n = 15 326; 63.4%), 1-19 cp/mL (n = 6318; 26.1%), 20-49 cp/mL (n = 1620; 6.7%), or <50 cp/mL with an unknown RV level (n = 922; 3.8%). In 193/1658 PWH (11.6%), the RV level was RNAneg in all VLs assessed. RV 1-19 cp/mL and 20-49 cp/mL (vs. RNAneg ) were significantly associated with subsequent viral blips (respective odds ratio 2.66 and 4.90 [95% confidence intervals: 1.98-3.58 and 3.41-7.04]). Zenith VL and use of PIs (vs. INSTIs/NNRTIs) were associated with higher RV and blip odds. This large cohort study showed that blips were associated with higher preceding RV. Both the anchor type and factors previously linked to the latent viral reservoir were associated with RV, suggesting blips having a multifactorial origin.

The prognostic value of red blood cell distribution width in patients with suspected infection in the emergency department.

BACKGROUND: Sepsis is a potential life threatening dysregulated immune response to an infection, which can result in multi-organ failure and death. Unfortunately, good prognostic markers are lacking in patients with suspected infection to identify those at risk. Red blood cell distribution width (RDW) is a common and inexpensive hematologic laboratory measurement associated with adverse prognosis in multiple diseases. The aim of this study was to determine the prognostic value of RDW for mortality and early clinical deterioration in patients with a suspected infection in the emergency department. METHODS: In this single center prospective observational cohort study, consecutive patients with suspected infection presenting for internal medicine in the emergency department between September 2016 and March 2018 were included. For prognostic validation of bedside sepsis scores and RDW receiver operating characteristics were generated. Association between RDW and mortality and ICU admission was analyzed univariate and in a multivariate logistic regression model. RESULTS: 1046 patients were included. In multivariate analyses, RDW was significantly associated with 30-day mortality (OR 1.15, 95% CI: 1.04-1.28) and early clinical deterioration (OR 1.09, 95% CI: 1.00-1.18). For 30-day mortality RDW had an AUROC of 0.66 (95% CI 0.59-0.72). Optimal cut-off value for RDW 2 was 12.95%. For early clinical deterioration RDW had an AUROC of 0.59 (95% CI 0.54-0.63) with an optimal cut-off value of 14.48%. CONCLUSIONS: RDW was found to be a significant independent prognostic factor of 30-day mortality and early clinical deterioration in patients with suspected infection.. Therefore it can be a used as an extra marker besides bedside sepsis scores in identifying patients at risk for worse outcome in patients with suspected infection.

Underlying Neural Mechanisms of Cognitive Improvement in Fronto-striatal Response Inhibition in People Living with HIV Switching Off Efavirenz: A Randomized Controlled BOLD fMRI Trial.

INTRODUCTION: It is unclear whether neurotoxicity due to the antiretroviral drug efavirenz (EFV) results in neurocognitive impairment in people living with HIV (PLWH). Previously, we found that discontinuing EFV was associated with improved processing speed and attention on neuropsychological assessment. In this imaging study, we investigate potential neural mechanisms underlying this cognitive improvement using a BOLD fMRI task assessing cortical and subcortical functioning. METHODS: Asymptomatic adult PLWH stable on emtricitabine/tenofovirdisoproxil/efavirenz were randomly (1:2) assigned to continue their regimen (n = 12) or to switch to emtricitabine/tenofovirdisoproxil/rilpivirine (n = 28). At baseline and after 12 weeks, both groups performed the Stop-Signal Anticipation Task, which tests reactive and proactive inhibition (indicative of subcortical and cortical functioning, respectively), involving executive functioning, working memory, and attention. Behavior and BOLD fMRI activation levels related to processing speed and attention Z-scores were assessed in 17 pre-defined brain regions. RESULTS: Both groups had comparable patient and clinical characteristics. Reactive inhibition behavioral responses improved for both groups on week 12, with other responses unchanged. Between-group activation did not differ significantly. For reactive inhibition, positive Pearson coefficients were observed for the change in BOLD fMRI activation levels and change in processing speed and attention Z-scores in all 17 regions in participants switched to emtricitabine/tenofovir disoproxil/rilpivirine, whereas in the control group, negative correlation coefficients were observed in 10/17 and 13/17 regions, respectively. No differential pattern was observed for proactive inhibition. CONCLUSION: Potential neural mechanisms underlying cognitive improvement after discontinuing EFV in PLWH were found in subcortical functioning, with our findings suggesting that EFV's effect on attention and processing speed is, at least partially, mediated by reactive inhibition. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Clinicaltrials.gov identifier [NCT02308332].

No long-term effect of past Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia on pulmonary function in people with HIV.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the impact of past Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PJP) on the pulmonary diffusion capacity in people with HIV (PWH) with a history of advanced immunodeficiency. DESIGN: Prospective cross-sectional study. METHODS: Adult PWH with past PJP >1 year ago were included as the study group. The control group consisted of PWH with a nadir CD4 + lymphocyte count <200 cells/mm 3 , matched by age, sex, smoking status and time since HIV diagnosis. All PWH completed a pulmonary function test (PFT) consisting of pre-bronchodilation spirometry, body plethysmography and single-breath carbon monoxide transfer factor (TLCO) measurement. TLCO, diffusion impairment (defined as a TLCO Z -score <-1.645), total lung capacity (TLC) and forced expiratory volume in one second/forced vital capacity (FEV1/FVC) Z -scores were assessed. Multivariable regression analyses were conducted with Z -scores and odds of diffusion impairment as outcomes. RESULTS: PFTs of 102 participants were analyzed, 51 of whom had past PJP with a median of 10 years since PJP. Mean TLCO Z -score and diffusion impairment rate did not differ significantly between groups ( P  = 0.790; P  = 0.650). Past PJP was not independently associated with TLCO Z -score [ ß = 0.14; 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.30-0.57], diffusion impairment (odds ratio 1.00; 95% CI 0.36-2.75) nor TLC or FEV1/FVC Z -scores, whereas current (vs. never) smoking was associated with more diffusion impairment and lower TLCO Z -scores. CONCLUSION: In our study, past PJP was not associated with long-term diffusion impairment. Our findings suggest that smoking plays a more important role in persistent pulmonary function impairment whereas PJP-related changes seem to be reversible.

Assessing and improving the quality of guideline-adherent hepatitis B virus care in people with HIV: A cross-sectional study.

The increasing use of non-tenofovir containing antiretroviral regimens calls for renewed attention to the prevention and management of hepatitis B virus (HBV) in people with HIV (PWH). We retrospectively assessed adherence to HBV guidelines, including complete HBV screening in PWH. In people with HIV/HBV co-infection, this included HBV therapy, screening for hepatitis delta virus (HDV) and on-therapy virologic response monitoring. HIV/HBV co-infection in PWH was defined as the presence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) at the last measurement before study entry or detectable HBV-DNA for ≥6 months. After assessment, missing laboratory tests were performed to optimize HBV monitoring and screening for co-infections. Of all PWH under follow-up, 1484/1633 (90.9%) were adequately screened for HBV. After performing missing screening tests, 466 of 1618 PWH with complete screening results (28.8%) were non-immune for HBV infection. Fifty-one (3.2%) with HIV/HBV co-infection were identified. HBV treatment was adequate in 51/51 (100%). Screening for hepatitis A, C and delta virus antibodies and fibrosis was performed in 51/51 (100%), 49/51 (96.1%), 17/51 (35.3%) and 38/51 (74.5%). Annual HBV-DNA or HBsAg monitoring was done in 18/51 (35.3%) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) surveillance in 2/9 (22.2%) of those indicated. Additional testing in those with missing data identified 4/34 (11.8%) persons with HDV antibodies and 3/30 (10%) with HBsAg seroclearance. Our study demonstrates the feasibility and added value of evaluating HBV care components and performing missing laboratory tests, identifying a large number of HBV vaccination candidates and HDV antibody screening, HBsAg monitoring and HCC surveillance as key areas for improvement.

The Effect of Efavirenz on Reward Processing in Asymptomatic People Living with HIV: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have demonstrated that HIV-infection affects the fronto-striatal network. It has not been examined what impact efavirenz (EFV), an antiretroviral drug notorious for its neurocognitive effects, has on the reward system: a key subcomponent involved in depressive and apathy symptoms. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effect of EFV on reward processing using a monetary incentive delay (MID) task. In this multicenter randomized controlled trial, asymptomatic adult participants stable on emtricitabine/tenofovirdisoproxil fumarate (FTC/TDF)/EFV were randomly assigned in a 2:1 ratio to switch to FTC/TDF/rilpivirine (RPV) (n = 30) or continue taking FTC/TDF/EFV (n = 13). At baseline and 12 weeks after therapy switch, both groups performed an MID task. Behavior and functional brain activity related to reward anticipation and reward outcome were assessed with blood-oxygen-level-dependent fMRI. Both groups were matched for age, education level, and time since HIV diagnosis and on EFV. At the behavioral level, both groups had faster response times and better response accuracy during rewarding versus nonrewarding trials, with no improvement resulting from switching FTC/TDF/EFV to FTC/TDF/RPV. No significant change in activation related to reward anticipation in the ventral striatum was found after switching therapy. Both groups had significantly higher activation levels over time, consistent with a potential learning effect. Similar activity related to reward outcome in the orbitofrontal cortex was found. Discontinuing FTC/TDF/EFV was not found to improve activity related to reward anticipation in asymptomatic people living with HIV, with similar cortical functioning during reward outcome processing. It is therefore likely that EFV does not affect motivational control. Further research is needed to determine whether EFV affects motivational control in HIV populations with different characteristics.

Lower Incidence of HIV-1 Blips Observed During Integrase Inhibitor-Based Combination Antiretroviral Therapy.

BACKGROUND: As the nature of viral blips remains unclear, their occurrence often leads to uncertainty. This study compares blip incidence rates during treatment with different combination antiretroviral therapy anchors. SETTING: Retrospective cohort study in a tertiary hospital. METHODS: All antiretroviral regimens between 2010 and 2020 containing 2 nucleos(-t)ide reverse transcriptase inhibitors and 1 anchor in virologically suppressed people living with HIV (PLWH) from our center were evaluated for the occurrence of blips [isolated viral loads (VLs) 50-499 copies/mL between measurements <50 copies/mL]. Factors associated with blips were identified using multivariable generalized estimating equation-based negative binomial models. The relationship between blips and either persistent low-level viremia (consecutive VLs ≥ 50 copies/mL not classified as failure) or virologic failure (consecutive VLs ≥ 200 or 1 VL ≥ 500 copies/mL) was also evaluated. RESULTS: In total, 308 blips occurred during 3405 treatment courses in 1661 PLWH. Compared with a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor anchor, blip incidence was higher for protease inhibitors (incidence rate ratio 1.37; 95% confidence interval 1.05 to 1.78) and lower for integrase inhibitors (INSTIs) (incidence rate ratio 0.64; 95% confidence interval: 0.43 to 0.96). In addition, blips were associated with higher zenith VL, higher VL test frequency, and shorter time since antiretroviral therapy initiation. PLWH experiencing blips were more likely to demonstrate persistent low-level viremia but not virologic failure. Blips led to extra consultations and measurements. CONCLUSIONS: INSTI-based regimens display a low number of blips. Although we found no correlation with virologic failure, the occurrence of blips led to an increased clinical burden. Further research is needed to elucidate the implications and underlying mechanisms of these findings.

Dual Antiretroviral Therapy-All Quiet Beneath the Surface?

Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is characterized by progressive depletion of CD4+ lymphocytes cells as a result of chronic immune activation. Next to the decreases in the number of CD4+ cells which leads to opportunistic infections, HIV-related immune activation is associated with several prevalent comorbidities in the HIV-positive population such as cardiovascular and bone disease. Traditionally, combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) consists of three drugs with activity against HIV and is highly effective in diminishing the degree of immune activation. Over the years, questions were raised whether virological suppression could also be achieved with fewer antiretroviral drugs, i.e., dual- or even monotherapy. This is an intriguing question considering the fact that antiretroviral drugs should be used lifelong and their use could also induce cardiovascular and bone disease. Therefore, the equilibrium between drug-induced toxicity and immune activation related comorbidity is delicate. Recently, two large clinical trials evaluating two-drug cART showed non-inferiority with respect to virological outcomes when compared to triple-drug regimens. This led to adoption of dual antiretroviral therapy in current HIV treatment guidelines. However, it is largely unknown whether dual therapy is also able to suppress immune activation to the same degree as triple therapy. This poses a risk for an imbalance in the delicate equilibrium. This mini review gives an overview of the current available evidence concerning immune activation in the setting of cART with less than three antiretroviral drugs.