The RhoA guanine nucleotide exchange factor, LARG, mediates ICAM-1-dependent mechanotransduction in endothelial cells to stimulate transendothelial migration.

RhoA-mediated cytoskeletal rearrangements in endothelial cells (ECs) play an active role in leukocyte transendothelial cell migration (TEM), a normal physiological process in which leukocytes cross the endothelium to enter the underlying tissue. Although much has been learned about RhoA signaling pathways downstream from ICAM-1 in ECs, little is known about the consequences of the tractional forces that leukocytes generate on ECs as they migrate over the surface before TEM. We have found that after applying mechanical forces to ICAM-1 clusters, there is an increase in cellular stiffening and enhanced RhoA signaling compared with ICAM-1 clustering alone. We have identified that leukemia-associated Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor (LARG), also known as Rho GEF 12 (ARHGEF12) acts downstream of clustered ICAM-1 to increase RhoA activity, and that this pathway is further enhanced by mechanical force on ICAM-1. Depletion of LARG decreases leukocyte crawling and inhibits TEM. To our knowledge, this is the first report of endothelial LARG regulating leukocyte behavior and EC stiffening in response to tractional forces generated by leukocytes.

Analysis-aware microscopy video compression.

This article introduces an analysis-aware microscopy video compression method designed for microscopy videos that are consumed by analysis algorithms rather than by the human visual system. We define the quality of a microscopy video based on the level of preservation of analysis results. We evaluated our method with a bead tracking analysis program. For the same error level in the analysis result, our method can achieve 1,000× compression on certain test microscopy videos. Compared with a previous technique that yields exactly the exact same results by analysis algorithms, our method gives more flexibility for a user to control the quality. A modification to the new method also provides faster compression speed.

An Automated High-throughput Array Microscope for Cancer Cell Mechanics.

Changes in cellular mechanical properties correlate with the progression of metastatic cancer along the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Few high-throughput methodologies exist that measure cell compliance, which can be used to understand the impact of genetic alterations or to screen the efficacy of chemotherapeutic agents. We have developed a novel array high-throughput microscope (AHTM) system that combines the convenience of the standard 96-well plate with the ability to image cultured cells and membrane-bound microbeads in twelve independently-focusing channels simultaneously, visiting all wells in eight steps. We use the AHTM and passive bead rheology techniques to determine the relative compliance of human pancreatic ductal epithelial (HPDE) cells, h-TERT transformed HPDE cells (HPNE), and four gain-of-function constructs related to EMT. The AHTM found HPNE, H-ras, Myr-AKT, and Bcl2 transfected cells more compliant relative to controls, consistent with parallel tests using atomic force microscopy and invasion assays, proving the AHTM capable of screening for changes in mechanical phenotype.

A high throughput array microscope for the mechanical characterization of biomaterials.

In the last decade, the emergence of high throughput screening has enabled the development of novel drug therapies and elucidated many complex cellular processes. Concurrently, the mechanobiology community has developed tools and methods to show that the dysregulation of biophysical properties and the biochemical mechanisms controlling those properties contribute significantly to many human diseases. Despite these advances, a complete understanding of the connection between biomechanics and disease will require advances in instrumentation that enable parallelized, high throughput assays capable of probing complex signaling pathways, studying biology in physiologically relevant conditions, and capturing specimen and mechanical heterogeneity. Traditional biophysical instruments are unable to meet this need. To address the challenge of large-scale, parallelized biophysical measurements, we have developed an automated array high-throughput microscope system that utilizes passive microbead diffusion to characterize mechanical properties of biomaterials. The instrument is capable of acquiring data on twelve-channels simultaneously, where each channel in the system can independently drive two-channel fluorescence imaging at up to 50 frames per second. We employ this system to measure the concentration-dependent apparent viscosity of hyaluronan, an essential polymer found in connective tissue and whose expression has been implicated in cancer progression.

Analysis-preserving video microscopy compression via correlation and mathematical morphology.

The large amount video data produced by multi-channel, high-resolution microscopy system drives the need for a new high-performance domain-specific video compression technique. We describe a novel compression method for video microscopy data. The method is based on Pearson's correlation and mathematical morphology. The method makes use of the point-spread function (PSF) in the microscopy video acquisition phase. We compare our method to other lossless compression methods and to lossy JPEG, JPEG2000, and H.264 compression for various kinds of video microscopy data including fluorescence video and brightfield video. We find that for certain data sets, the new method compresses much better than lossless compression with no impact on analysis results. It achieved a best compressed size of 0.77% of the original size, 25× smaller than the best lossless technique (which yields 20% for the same video). The compressed size scales with the video's scientific data content. Further testing showed that existing lossy algorithms greatly impacted data analysis at similar compression sizes.

TGF-ß regulates LARG and GEF-H1 during EMT to affect stiffening response to force and cell invasion.

Recent studies implicate a role for cell mechanics in cancer progression. The epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) regulates the detachment of cancer cells from the epithelium and facilitates their invasion into stromal tissue. Although classic EMT hallmarks include loss of cell-cell adhesions, morphology changes, and increased invasion capacity, little is known about the associated mechanical changes. Previously, force application on integrins has been shown to initiate cytoskeletal rearrangements that result in increased cell stiffness and a stiffening response. Here we demonstrate that transforming growth factor ß (TGF-ß)-induced EMT results in decreased stiffness and loss of the normal stiffening response to force applied on integrins. We find that suppression of the RhoA guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) LARG and GEF-H1 through TGF-ß/ALK5-enhanced proteasomal degradation mediates these changes in cell mechanics and affects EMT-associated invasion. Taken together, our results reveal a functional connection between attenuated stiffness and stiffening response and the increased invasion capacity acquired after TGF-ß-induced EMT.

Isolated nuclei adapt to force and reveal a mechanotransduction pathway in the nucleus.

Mechanical forces influence many aspects of cell behaviour. Forces are detected and transduced into biochemical signals by force-bearing molecular elements located at the cell surface, in adhesion complexes or in cytoskeletal structures. The nucleus is physically connected to the cell surface through the cytoskeleton and the linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complex, allowing rapid mechanical stress transmission from adhesions to the nucleus. Although it has been demonstrated that nuclei experience force, the direct effect of force on the nucleus is not known. Here we show that isolated nuclei are able to respond to force by adjusting their stiffness to resist the applied tension. Using magnetic tweezers, we found that applying force on nesprin-1 triggers nuclear stiffening that does not involve chromatin or nuclear actin, but requires an intact nuclear lamina and emerin, a protein of the inner nuclear membrane. Emerin becomes tyrosine phosphorylated in response to force and mediates the nuclear mechanical response to tension. Our results demonstrate that mechanotransduction is not restricted to cell surface receptors and adhesions but can occur in the nucleus.

Haemodynamic and extracellular matrix cues regulate the mechanical phenotype and stiffness of aortic endothelial cells.

Endothelial cells (ECs) lining blood vessels express many mechanosensors, including platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM-1), that convert mechanical force into biochemical signals. While it is accepted that mechanical stresses and the mechanical properties of ECs regulate vessel health, the relationship between force and biological response remains elusive. Here we show that ECs integrate mechanical forces and extracellular matrix (ECM) cues to modulate their own mechanical properties. We demonstrate that the ECM influences EC response to tension on PECAM-1. ECs adherent on collagen display divergent stiffening and focal adhesion growth compared with ECs on fibronectin. This is because of protein kinase A (PKA)-dependent serine phosphorylation and inactivation of RhoA. PKA signalling regulates focal adhesion dynamics and EC compliance in response to shear stress in vitro and in vivo. Our study identifies an ECM-specific, mechanosensitive signalling pathway that regulates EC compliance and may serve as an atheroprotective mechanism that maintains blood vessel integrity in vivo.

HIF1α and HIF2α independently activate SRC to promote melanoma metastases.

Malignant melanoma is characterized by a propensity for early lymphatic and hematogenous spread. The hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) family of transcription factors is upregulated in melanoma by key oncogenic drivers. HIFs promote the activation of genes involved in cancer initiation, progression, and metastases. Hypoxia has been shown to enhance the invasiveness and metastatic potential of tumor cells by regulating the genes involved in the breakdown of the ECM as well as genes that control motility and adhesion of tumor cells. Using a Pten-deficient, Braf-mutant genetically engineered mouse model of melanoma, we demonstrated that inactivation of HIF1α or HIF2α abrogates metastasis without affecting primary tumor formation. HIF1α and HIF2α drive melanoma invasion and invadopodia formation through PDGFRα and focal adhesion kinase-mediated (FAK-mediated) activation of SRC and by coordinating ECM degradation via MT1-MMP and MMP2 expression. These results establish the importance of HIFs in melanoma progression and demonstrate that HIF1α and HIF2α activate independent transcriptional programs that promote metastasis by coordinately regulating cell invasion and ECM remodeling.