Microbial production of toluene in oxygen minimum zone waters in the Humboldt Current System off Chile.

Expansion of oxygen minimum zones in the world's oceans is likely to enhance the production of anaerobic metabolites by marine microorganisms. Here we show that toluene is present throughout the year in shelf waters of the upwelling ecosystem off Concepción (36° S), Chile, and it is a product of microbial anaerobic metabolism. The intra-annual variability in toluene concentrations is consistent with seasonal variability in the strengths of suboxic equatorial and oxygenated subantarctic water masses. Laboratory incubations of oxygen minimum zone water showed microbial production of toluene in the absence of O2. Toluene concentrations were elevated (up to 96 nM) in deeper O2-depleted waters and followed a seasonal pattern in oceanographic conditions. There is evidence to hypothesize that microbial production of toluene could be a homeostatic biochemical mechanism to thrive in the more acidic oxygen minimum zone waters. On the other hand, evidence indicates that microbial anaerobic degradation of toluene may be a source of NO2- by partial denitrification, as shown for aquifer sediments. Since toluene production was not detected in incubations under aerobic conditions, we hypothesize that oxygen minimum zone waters export toluene to surrounding oxygenated waters. Expansion of hypoxia in the ocean will certainly enhance the production and export of anaerobic metabolites by marine microorganisms.

Water-sediment partitioning of flumequine and florfenicol, two antibiotics used in salmon aquaculture in Chile.

The water-sediment partitioning of flumequine and florfenicol, two antibiotics used in salmon aquaculture is a critical driver of their fate and environmental impact. Batch experiments, were carried out using pure water or seawater, with or without sediment, and at summer and winter temperatures of Chilean fjords. Log Kd (partition between water and sediment) of florfenicol in seawater varied from 0.62 ± 0.69 to 0.67 ± 0.13, and Log KOC (partition between water and organic fraction of sediment) from 2.15± 0.29 to 2.19 ± 0.13. Difference between KOC and the octanol-water partition constant (KOW) showed that for florfenicol, adsorption onto the surface of particles was more significant than the absorption driven by hydrophobicity whilst hydrophobic absorption was a major driver of flumequine sorption. Flumequine Log Kd (0.92 ± 0.25 to 1.36 ± 0.10) and Log KOC (from 2.44 ± 0.25 to 2.89 ± 0.10) demonstrated its greater affinity than florfenicol to particles and potential accumulation into marine sediments.

Physical and anthropogenic drivers shaping the spatial distribution of microplastics in the marine sediments of Chilean fjords.

Several studies have focused on the presence and distribution of microplastics within the water column of coastal waters, but the dynamics of these particles in sediments have received little attention. Here we examine the concentrations and characteristics of microplastics in sediment samples collected from 35 stations within the Inner Sea of Chiloé, Chilean Patagonia. Current velocity, grain size, intensity of salmon farming activities, and human population density were all evaluated as factors potentially explaining concentrations and distribution of microplastic particles within these sediments. Microplastics were detected in all samples, with the highest abundance represented by fibers (88%), fragments (10%) and films (2%). Across the sampled sites, microplastic concentrations averaged 72.2 ± 32.4 (SD) items per kg dw (dry weight) sediment, with the principal polymers identified as polyethylene terephthalate (PET), acrylic, polypropylene (PP) and polyurethane (PUR). Approximately 40% of the variability in distribution and abundance of microplastics was explained by current velocity combined with proximity and intensity of local salmon production activities. SYNOPSIS: Marine currents and aquaculture intensity explain abundance and dynamics of microplastics in marine sediments.

Antibiotics florfenicol and flumequine in the water column and sediments of Puyuhuapi Fjord, Chilean Patagonia.

Chile is a major global producer of farmed salmon in the fjords of Patagonia, and therefore a major consumer of antibiotics. We tested whether the antibiotics florfenicol and flumequine persisted in the large Puyuhuapi Fjord after the six months following mandatory concerted treatment by all salmon farms present in the fjord. Antibiotics were detected in 26% of analyzed samples, but only within the particulate phase, with concentrations of florfenicol of up to 23.1 ng L-1, where detected. Flumequine was present in one sample at trace concentration, and neither antibiotic was detected in the dissolved phase nor in surface sediments. A fugacity-based model predicted that flumequine should theoretically remain in surface sediments at the sub-Minimal Inhibiting Concentrations (sub-MIC) previously shown to promote selection for antibiotic resistance in bacteria. Our observations suggest that surface sediments might act as a reservoir for antibiotic resistomes of bacteria, and that bacteria bearing antibiotic resistance genes could eventually become a risk for human health through the consumption of marine products.

Chemically unidentified dissolved organic carbon: A pivotal piece for microbial activity in a productive area of the Northern Patagonian shelf.

The biochemical composition and fluorescence properties of DOM were assessed in relation to phytoplankton and major aquatic bacterial clades in a regenerative area of the Argentine Shelf. DOM was mainly of autochthonous biological origin, containing humic- and protein-like substances of medium degree of unsaturation and diagenesis. Biochemical-DOM accounted for 25% of total DOC, being dissolved combined amino acids (DCAA) the dominant fraction followed by free carbohydrates. Phytoplankton was the main source of serine, alanine, and valine, and particulate carbohydrates. Gammaproteobacteria abundance correlated negatively with ammonium and positively with DCAA, suggesting a coupling between ammonium consumption and refractory amino acid production. A preferential utilization of alanine, leucine and threonine as nitrogen source was inferred from the distribution of Cytophaga-Flavobacteria-Bacteroidete in relation with dissolved free amino acids (DFAA). Notably, Alpha- and Betaproteobacteria correlated with the large pool (75%) of chemically unidentified DOC and not with DCAA or dissolved combined carbohydrates. Particularly, Alphaproteobacteria (∼40% of EUB total heterotrophic bacteria) either significantly contribute to the production of the "humic", refractory fraction of marine DOM, or the latter impairs resource control on their abundance. Spatial heterogeneity inherent to coastal-shelf areas drives important regional variability in the biochemical properties of DOM.

Water column circulation drives microplastic distribution in the Martínez-Baker channels; A large fjord ecosystem in Chilean Patagonia.

We investigated the distribution of microplastics in the water column along a large remote estuarine system located between the Northern and Southern Patagonian Ice Fields in Chilean Patagonia, and connected with the Pacific Ocean through the Gulf of Penas. Microplastic particles were found in all samples, with abundances ranging from 0.1 to 7 particles/m3. Polymers identified were principally acrylics, PET, and cellophane. The average abundance of microplastics in surface waters was similar along the whole estuary (0.4 ± 0.3 particles/m3) with acrylics and epoxy resins being more abundant near Caleta Tortel, the only small village in the area. The observed higher abundance of microplastics in the deeper waters towards the Gulf of Penas points to intrusions of subsurface waters transporting plastic particles from the ocean into the channel system. This underlines the potential of ocean currents in transporting plastic pollution into pristine fjords and channels in Chilean Patagonia.

Use of a Thermophile Desiccation-Tolerant Cyanobacterial Culture and Os Redox Polymer for the Preparation of Photocurrent Producing Anodes.

Oxygenic photosynthesis conducted by cyanobacteria has dramatically transformed the geochemistry of our planet. These organisms have colonized most habitats, including extreme environments such as the driest warm desert on Earth: the Atacama Desert. In particular, cyanobacteria highly tolerant to desiccation are of particular interest for clean energy production. These microorganisms are promising candidates for designing bioelectrodes for photocurrent generation owing to their ability to perform oxygenic photosynthesis and to withstand long periods of desiccation. Here, we present bioelectrochemical assays in which graphite electrodes were modified with the extremophile cyanobacterium Gloeocapsopsis sp. UTEXB3054 for photocurrent generation. Optimum working conditions for photocurrent generation were determined by modifying directly graphite electrode with the cyanobacterial culture (direct electron transfer), as well as using an Os polymer redox mediator (mediated electron transfer). Besides showing outstanding photocurrent production for Gloeocapsopsis sp. UTEXB3054, both in direct and mediated electron transfer, our results provide new insights into the metabolic basis of photocurrent generation and the potential applications of such an assisted bioelectrochemical system in a worldwide scenario in which clean energies are imperative for sustainable development.