Variability of bioaccessibility results using seventeen different methods on a standard reference material, NIST 2710.

Bioaccessibility is a measurement of a substance's solubility in the human gastro-intestinal system, and is often used in the risk assessment of soils. The present study was designed to determine the variability among laboratories using different methods to measure the bioaccessibility of 24 inorganic contaminants in one standardized soil sample, the standard reference material NIST 2710. Fourteen laboratories used a total of 17 bioaccessibility extraction methods. The variability between methods was assessed by calculating the reproducibility relative standard deviations (RSDs), where reproducibility is the sum of within-laboratory and between-laboratory variability. Whereas within-laboratory repeatability was usually better than (<) 15% for most elements, reproducibility RSDs were much higher, indicating more variability, although for many elements they were comparable to typical uncertainties (e.g., 30% in commercial laboratories). For five trace elements of interest, reproducibility RSDs were: arsenic (As), 22-44%; cadmium (Cd), 11-41%; Cu, 15-30%; lead (Pb), 45-83%; and Zn, 18-56%. Only one method variable, pH, was found to correlate significantly with bioaccessibility for aluminum (Al), Cd, copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), Pb and zinc (Zn) but other method variables could not be examined systematically because of the study design. When bioaccessibility results were directly compared with bioavailability results for As (swine and mouse) and Pb (swine), four methods returned results within uncertainty ranges for both elements: two that were defined as simpler (gastric phase only, limited chemicals) and two were more complex (gastric + intestinal phases, with a mixture of chemicals).

Allometric gender allocation in Ambrosia Artemisiifolia (Asteraceae) has adaptive plasticity.

Evidence is reported for size-dependent (allometric) gender allocation in the monoecious, wind-pollinated annual Ambrosia artemissifolia. Consistent with established theory, the pattern of allometry displayed adaptive plasticity, depending on the environmental cause of variation in plant size. Plant size gradients were generated in both field and greenhouse experiments using separate and combined gradients of shading, soil nutrient levels, and neighbor proximity. When plant size constraints involved light limitation from shading (e.g., because of close neighbor proximity), decreasing plant size was generally associated with decreasing maleness and increasing femaleness (based on relative male and female flower production, respectively). This is consistent with the "pollen-dispersal" hypothesis in which the consequences of relatively small plant size (among larger neighbors) imposes less severe limitation for female reproductive success than for male reproductive success (because success as an outcrossing donor of wind-dispersed pollen increases with increasing plant height, especially when neighbors are present). However, when size was constrained by soil nutrient limitation alone (i.e., without shading effects), the results had the converse allometric relationship; i.e., decreasing plant size was generally associated with increasing maleness and decreasing femaleness. This is consistent with the "size-advantage" and "time-limitation" hypotheses in which energetic and time limitations (respectively) associated with relatively small plant size impose a less severe limitation for male reproductive success than for female reproductive success.