An active contributor: Dr. Lindberg and NLM's historical programs and services.

Donald A.B. Lindberg M.D.'s interests extended far beyond his scientific expertise into the arts and humanities, as evidenced, for example, by his love of opera, his talents in photography, and his affection for history. It is therefore not surprising that he had a strong interest in the National Library of Medicine's historical programs and services, going beyond supporting these activities to becoming actively involved in some of them. The subject of this essay is Dr. Lindberg's contributions to these programs and services, which may be grouped under three main headings: placing greater emphasis on more contemporary history, promoting the digitization of historical materials to increase access, and enhancing outreach through an exhibition program.

The Emergence and Early Fate of the Three Rs Concept.

In the 60th year since the publication of The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique by W.M.S. Russell and R.L. Burch, we visited the W.M.S. and Claire Russell Archive at the University of Nottingham to discover, or confirm, answers to certain questions: the origins of the UFAW project which led to its writing; the relationship between Russell and Burch; the project plan; the origin of the Three Rs (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement) concept; the drafting, publication and response to the appearance of the book; and the future careers of its authors. We report on our findings, though many other questions have yet to be answered.

60 Years of the 3Rs symposium: Lessons learned and the road ahead.

When The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique was published in 1959, authors William Russell and Rex Burch had a modest goal: to make researchers think about what they were doing in the laboratory - and to do it more humanely. Sixty years later, their groundbreaking book was celebrated for inspiring a revolution in science and launching a new field: The 3Rs of alternatives to animal experimentation. On November 22, 2019, some pioneering and leading scientists and researchers in the field gathered at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health in Bal-timore for the 60 Years of the 3Rs Symposium: Lessons Learned and the Road Ahead. The event was sponsored by the Johns Hopkins Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), the Foundation for Chemistry Research and Initiatives, the Alternative Research & Development Foundation (ARDF), the American Cleaning Institute (ACI), the International Fragrance Association (IFRA), the Institute for In Vitro Sciences (IIVS), John "Jack" R. Fowle III, and the Society of Toxicology (SoT). Fourteen pres-entations shared the history behind the groundbreaking publication, international efforts to achieve its aims, stumbling blocks to progress, as well as remarkable achievements. The day was a tribute to Russell and Burch, and a testament to what is possible when people from many walks of life - science, government, and industry - work toward a common goal.

William Russell and Rex Burch published their book The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique in 1959. The book encouraged researchers to replace animal experiments where it was possible, to refine experiments with animals in order to reduce their suffering, and to reduce the number of animals that had to be used for experiments to the minimum. Sixty years later, a group of pioneering and leading scientists and researchers in the field gathered to share how the publi­cation came about and how the vision inspired international collaborations and successes on many different levels including new laws. The paper includes an overview of important milestones in the history of alternatives to animal experimentation.

An Active Contributor: Dr. Lindberg and NLM's Historical Programs and Services.

Donald A.B. Lindberg M.D.'s interests extended far beyond his scientific expertise into the arts and humanities, as evidenced, for example, by his love of opera, his talents in photography, and his affection for history. It is therefore not surprising that he had a strong interest in the National Library of Medicine's historical programs and services, going beyond supporting these activities to becoming actively involved in some of them. The subject of this essay is Dr. Lindberg's contributions to these programs and services, which may be grouped under three main headings: placing greater emphasis on more contemporary history, promoting the digitization of historical materials to increase access, and enhancing outreach through an exhibition program.

Quarantining women: venereal disease rapid treatment centers in World War II America.

Concern about the infection of servicemen and essential war workers with venereal disease led the U.S. Public Health Service, with the cooperation of state and local health officials, to set up a national program of venereal disease quarantine hospitals during World War II. Although some of the hospitals eventually accepted men, the initial purpose of these facilities was to detain and treat venereally affected prostitutes and "promiscuous women" who were considered a threat to the war effort. Using quarantine powers, officials forcibly detained venereally infected women and treated them for their disease. The hospitals were generally known as "rapid treatment centers" because of the methods employed to treat venereal disease. Health officials were especially concerned that prostitutes (and other women of "loose morals") would not comply with the traditional lengthy and arduous treatment for syphilis, which involved weekly injections of arsenical drugs for a year or more and unpleasant side effects. Therefore, the newly established quarantine hospitals used recently developed rapid treatment methods based on the administration of multiple injections or intravenous drips of arsenicals over a period of days. Although some objections were raised against these policies, which obviously discriminated against women, on the whole the rapid treatment centers were accepted as a necessary measure in the defense of national security. Some of the issues raised by these centers are still relevant to public health policy today.

Physiology, propaganda, and pound animals: medical research and animal welfare in mid-twentieth century America.

In 1952, the University of Michigan physiologist Robert Gesell shocked his colleagues at the business meeting of the American Physiological Society by reading a prepared statement in which he claimed that some of the animal experimentation being carried out by scientists was inhumane. He especially attacked the National Society for Medical Research (NSMR), an organization that had been founded to defend animal experimentation. This incident was part of a broader struggle taking place at the time between scientists and animal welfare advocates with respect to what restrictions, if any, should be placed on animal research. A particularly controversial issue was whether or not pound animals should be made available to laboratories for research. Two of the prominent players in this controversy were the NSMR and the Animal Welfare Institute, founded and run by Gesell's daughter, Christine Stevens. This article focuses on the interaction between these two organizations within the broader context of the debate over animal experimentation in the mid-twentieth century.

A brief history of ASPET on its centennial anniversary.

On December 28, 1908, eighteen men met in the pharmacology lecture room of the Johns Hopkins University Medical School to establish the American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics (ASPET). In 2008, ASPET celebrates its Centennial, presenting an appropriate occasion for a look back at its history.

From cards to computers: the National Library of Medicine and the transmission of medical knowledge.

The National Library of Medicine (NLM) is the world's largest medical Library. Its collections total some 6 million items and NLM also sponsors a variety of key databases in the medical field. This article traces the history and the strategies of the Library from the origins until today.

Trends and events in American pharmacy, 1852-2002.

The mid-19th century was a watershed for the governance of American pharmacy, marked by the founding of APhA in 1852 and the recognition that pharmacists had a duty to protect patients' health and welfare. Drug therapy has undergone a dramatic transformation since the pharmacological shotgun approach of the mid-1880s, propelled by progress in the biomedical sciences, including the recent genetics revolution. The rising number and cost of prescriptions is a leading public policy issue and a contributing factor to the current shortage of pharmacists.