Induction of Krüppel-like factor 4 expression in reactive astrocytes following ischemic injury in vitro and in vivo.

Krüppel-like factor 4 (KLF4) is a transcription factor with diverse and cell type-specific functions and is associated with a variety of pathophysiological processes. Recently, it has been proposed that the regulation of KLF4 is critical to neuronal differentiation and that neural progenitors overexpressing KLF4 take on a glial identity. The present study aimed to determine whether KLF4 is involved in the astroglial reaction induced by ischemia-reperfusion injury in the brain. No specific KLF4 immunoreactivity was observed in resting astrocytes of the control hippocampus, but significant induction was detected in reactive astrocytes preferentially located in the CA1 and dentate hilar regions of the hippocampus following transient forebrain ischemia. Astroglial KLF4 expression was induced in the nuclei and cytoplasm within 3 days of ischemia and persisted for at least 4 weeks. This pattern was reproduced in an in vitro astrogliosis model of rat primary cortical astrocytes exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). Furthermore, immunoblot assay showed that nuclear and cytosolic extracts from cortical astrocytes subjected to OGD had significantly higher levels of KLF4 protein compared to normoxic extracts. Thus, our data demonstrate that KLF4 expression was induced in astroglia by ischemic injury both in vivo and in vitro, suggesting that KLF4 may act as a transcription factor linked to the regulation of the astroglial reaction following ischemic injury.

Characterization of nestin expression and vessel association in the ischemic core following focal cerebral ischemia in rats.

The present study aimed to provide a detailed characterization of the cellular phenotypes of nestin-positive cells in a rat model of ischemic stroke. Nestin-positive cells included reactive astrocytes in the peri-infarct region. In the ischemic core, in which astrocytes had virtually disappeared, nestin expression was exclusively associated with the vasculature, including the microvasculature and larger caliber vessels. Induction of nestin expression in the ischemic core occurred by 3 days post-ischemia. Nestin expression continued through at least 28 days post-ischemia but the cellular profiles of nestin-positive cells changed over this period. In the ischemic core at day 3, nestin-positive cells frequently had long processes that ran parallel along the longitudinal axis of the vasculature. These cells were highly proliferative and expressed the transcription factor for neural/glial progenitors, Sox9. Based on their morphological characteristics and on a double-labeling study, most nestin-positive cells were clearly distinguishable from vasculature-associated cells including endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells and microglia/macrophages. Immunoelectron microscopic findings demonstrated that most nestin-positive cells lay in the perivascular space and had macrophage-like features, indicating morphological similarity to perivascular macrophages. Nestin expression was still associated with the vasculature 14 days after ischemia but appeared in fibroblast-like cells. Thus, our data indicated that, in the ischemic core, nestin expression was not limited to a progenitor/stem cell population but was induced in the vasculature-associated cells. These cell types included perivascular macrophages and fibroblast-like cells that appeared to undergo dynamic structural changes. These results suggest that nestin facilitates cellular structural remodeling in response to ischemic injury.

Characterization of nestin expression in astrocytes in the rat hippocampal CA1 region following transient forebrain ischemia.

Recent studies have suggested that nestin facilitates cellular structural remodeling in vasculature-associated cells in response to ischemic injury. The current study was designed to investigate the potential role of post-ischemic nestin expression in parenchymal astrocytes. With this aim, we characterized ischemia-induced nestin expression in the CA1 hippocampal region, an area that undergoes a delayed neuronal death, followed by a lack of neuronal generation after transient forebrain ischemia. Virtually all of the nestin-positive cells in the ischemic CA1 hippocampus were reactive astrocytes. However, induction of nestin expression did not correlate simply with astrogliosis, but rather showed characteristic time- and strata-dependent expression patterns. Nestin induction in astrocytes of the pyramidal cell layer was rapid and transient, while a long-lasting induction of nestin was observed in astrocytes located in the CA1 dendritic subfields, such as the stratum oriens and radiatum, until at least day 28 after ischemia. There was no detectable expression in the stratum lacunosum moleculare despite the evident astroglial reaction. Almost all of the nestin-positive cells also expressed a transcription factor for neural/glial progenitors, i.e., Sox-2 or Sox-9, and some cells were also positive for Ki-67. However, all of the nestin-positive astrocytes expressed the calcium-binding protein S100ß, which is known to be expressed in a distinct, post-mitotic astrocyte population. Thus, our data indicate that in the ischemic CA1 hippocampus, nestin expression was induced in astroglia that were becoming reactive, but not in a progenitor/stem cell population, suggesting that nestin may allow for the structural remodeling of these cells in response to ischemic injury.

Upregulation of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-3 in the spinal cord of Lewis rats with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

We investigated the spatiotemporal expression of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-3 (VEGFR-3) in the spinal cord of Lewis rats with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model for multiple sclerosis. VEGFR-3 mRNA and protein were constitutively expressed in gray matter neurons and in a few white matter astrocytes. Induction of VEGFR-3 occurred predominantly in perivascular infiltrated macrophages in the spinal cord white matter during the inductive phase of EAE. VEGFR-3 expression was also induced in activated microglial cells in the gray and white matter, mainly in the peak phase. In addition, reactive astrocytes in the white matter, but not in the gray matter, expressed VEGFR-3 as disease severity increased. These data suggest that VEGFR-3 is involved in the recruitment of monocytic macrophages and in glial reactions during EAE.

Induction of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-3 expression in perivascular cells of the ischemic core following focal cerebral ischemia in rats.

Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR)-3, a receptor for VEGF-C and VEGF-D, has recently been reported to be induced within vessel-like structures in the ischemic brain. The purpose of the present study was to characterize and define further the cellular phenotypes of vascular-associated cells that manifest induced VEGFR-3 expression in a rat model of ischemic stroke. Vessel-associated cells expressing VEGFR-3 were found to be perivascular astrocytes in the peri-infarct region, whereas in the ischemic core, where astrocytes had virtually disappeared, induction of VEGFR-3 mRNA and protein was still prominent in vascular structures 3-7 days after reperfusion. VEGFR-3 and nestin expression were colocated in almost all cells associated with the vasculature in the ischemic core, and most (~82%) of the VEGFR-3/nestin double-labeled cells were proliferative. A subpopulation of these VEGFR-3-expressing cells appeared to be included in two immunophenotypically distinct perivascular cells: NG2-positive pericytes and ED2- or OX6-perivascular macrophages. However, most of these cells did not show markers for vasculature-associated cell types such as endothelial cells, microglia/macrophages, and smooth muscle cells. Thus, our data indicated that vasculature-associated VEGFR-3-expressing cells in the ischemic core may represent a heterogeneous population of cells with functional diversity, rather than a uniform cell type.

Partially cystic thyroid nodules: ultrasound findings of malignancy.

OBJECTIVE: To seek for the ultrasound (US) findings of partially cystic thyroid nodules that are associated with malignancy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We reviewed the US characteristics of 22 surgically confirmed partially cystic papillary carcinomas, and compared them with those of 80 benign partially cystic nodules. The review cases were selected in a random order from a total of 1029 partially cystic nodules that were diagnosed with an US-guided fine needle aspiration biopsy over a period of 8 years (June 2003 to October 2010) at our institution. RESULTS: In partially cystic thyroid nodules, a taller-than-wide shape (100%, p < 0.001) and spiculated or microlobulated margin (58.3%, p = 0.003) were significantly associated with malignancy. In terms of internal solid portion of the nodule, eccentric configuration (68.0%, p < 0.001), non-smooth margin (81.3%, p < 0.001), hypoechogenecity (30.0%, p < 0.042), and microcalcification (89.5%, p < 0.001) were more frequently demonstrated in malignant nodules than benign ones. CONCLUSION: In partially cystic thyroid nodules, understanding the characteristics of US findings is important to make a precise diagnosis of malignant nodules.

Sustained expression of osteopontin is closely associated with calcium deposits in the rat hippocampus after transient forebrain ischemia.

The present study was designed to evaluate the extent and topography of osteopontin (OPN) protein expression in the rat hippocampus 4 to 12 weeks following transient forebrain ischemia, and to compare OPN expression patterns with those of calcium deposits and astroglial and microglial reactions. Two patterns of OPN staining were recognized by light microscopy: 1) a diffuse pattern of tiny granular deposits throughout the CA1 region at 4 weeks after ischemia and 2) non-diffuse ovoid to round deposits, which formed conglomerates in the CA1 pyramidal cell layer over the chronic interval of 8 to 12 weeks. Immunogold-silver electron microscopy and electron probe microanalysis demonstrated that OPN deposits were indeed diverse types of calcium deposits, which were clearly delineated by profuse silver grains indicative of OPN expression. Intracellular OPN deposits were frequently observed within reactive astrocytes and neurons 4 weeks after ischemia but rarely at later times. By contrast, extracellular OPN deposits progressively increased in size and appeared to be gradually phagocytized by microglia or brain macrophages and some astrocytes over 8 to 12 weeks. These data indicate an interaction between OPN and calcium in the hippocampus in the chronic period after ischemia, suggesting that OPN binding to calcium deposits may be involved in scavenging mechanisms.

Overlapping distribution of osteopontin and calcium in the ischemic core of rat brain after transient focal ischemia.

Osteopontin (OPN), an adhesive glycoprotein, has recently been proposed to act as an opsonin that facilitates phagocytosis of neuronal debris by macrophages in the ischemic brain. The present study was designed to elucidate the process whereby OPN binds to neuronal cell debris in a rat model of ischemic stroke. Significant co-localization of the OPN protein and calcium deposits in the ischemic core were observed by combining alizarin red staining and OPN immunohistochemistry. In addition, electron microscopy (EM) using the osmium/potassium dichromate method revealed that electron-dense precipitates, typical of calcium deposits, were localized mainly along the periphery of putative degenerating neurites. This topical pattern of calcium precipitates resembled the distribution of OPN as detected by immunogold-silver EM. Combining immunogold-silver EM and electron probe microanalysis further demonstrated that the OPN protein was localized at the periphery of cell debris or degenerating neurites, corresponding with locally higher concentrations of calcium and phosphorus, and that the relative magnitude of OPN accumulation was comparable to that of calcium and phosphorus. These data suggest that calcium precipitation provides a matrix for the binding of the OPN protein within the debris or degenerating neurites induced by ischemic injury. Therefore, OPN binding to calcium deposits may be involved in phagocytosis of such debris, and may participate in the regulation of ectopic calcification in the ischemic brain.

Distribution of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-3/Flt4 mRNA in adult rat central nervous system.

Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR)-3/Flt4 binds VEGF-C and VEGF-D with high affinity. It has been suggested to be involved in neurogenesis and adult neuronal function. However, little is known about the localization of VEGFR-3 in the adult central nervous system (CNS). The present study presents, to our knowledge, the first detailed mapping of VEGFR-3 mRNA expression in adult rat brain and spinal cord by using in situ hybridization and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis (RT-PCR). Varying VEGFR-3 expression intensity was detected in functionally diverse nuclei, with the highest levels in the mitral cells of the olfactory bulb, piriform cortex, anterodorsal thalamic nucleus, several nuclei of the hypothalamus, and the brainstem cranial nerve nuclei. VEGFR-3 mRNA was abundantly expressed in the ventral motor neurons of the spinal cord and in some circumventricular organs such as the median eminence and the area postrema. Moreover, the locus coeruleus and some of the nuclei of the reticular formation showed moderate-to-high hybridization signals. VEGFR-3 expression appeared to be localized mostly within neurons, but weak labeling was also found in some astrocytes. In particular, VEGFR-3 was highly expressed in ependymal cells of the ventral third ventricle and the median eminence, which were co-labeled with vimentin but not with glial fibrillary acidic protein, suggesting that these cells are tanycytes. RT-PCR analysis revealed similar levels of VEGFR-3 expression in all regions of the adult rat CNS. The specific but widespread distribution of VEGFR-3 mRNA in the adult rat CNS suggests that VEGFR-3 functions more broadly than expected, regulating adult neuronal function playing important roles in tanycyte function.