The effect of exotic grass Urochloa decumbens (Stapf) R.D.Webster (Poaceae) in the reduction of species richness and change of floristic composition of natural regeneration in the Floresta Nacional de Carajás, Brazil.

The introduction of exotic species is considered as one of the major causes of biodiversity loss. The National Forest of Carajás is one of the largest mineral provinces in the world. Mining activities caused changes of the natural habitats, leaving degraded areas after the mineral exploitation. One of the mining areas within FLONA Carajás was used for the extraction of gold. In the process of exploitation, a huge depression was formed by the removal of soil which was mounded up nearby. To prevent soil erosion of these mounds, an exotic grass, Urochloa decumbens (Stapf) R.D.Webster (Poaceae) was planted. The objective of this study was to compare the impact of this non-native grass on species richness and species composition of the natural regeneration in the degraded areas. Four areas were compared, two with and two without presence of U. decumbens. In each area, twenty four 1m²/plots were established. Species richness of the regeneration areas and population sizes were significantly lower in the plots where the exotic grass was present. Our study shows that U. decumbens had a negative effect on species richness and population density, and its presence changed the species composition and distribution of life forms of the natural regeneration.

One sixth of Amazonian tree diversity is dependent on river floodplains.

Amazonia's floodplain system is the largest and most biodiverse on Earth. Although forests are crucial to the ecological integrity of floodplains, our understanding of their species composition and how this may differ from surrounding forest types is still far too limited, particularly as changing inundation regimes begin to reshape floodplain tree communities and the critical ecosystem functions they underpin. Here we address this gap by taking a spatially explicit look at Amazonia-wide patterns of tree-species turnover and ecological specialization of the region's floodplain forests. We show that the majority of Amazonian tree species can inhabit floodplains, and about a sixth of Amazonian tree diversity is ecologically specialized on floodplains. The degree of specialization in floodplain communities is driven by regional flood patterns, with the most compositionally differentiated floodplain forests located centrally within the fluvial network and contingent on the most extraordinary flood magnitudes regionally. Our results provide a spatially explicit view of ecological specialization of floodplain forest communities and expose the need for whole-basin hydrological integrity to protect the Amazon's tree diversity and its function.

Impacts of hydroelectric dams on alluvial riparian plant communities in Eastern Brazilian Amazonian.

The major rivers of the Amazon River basin and their biota are threatened by the planned construction of large hydroelectric dams that are expected to have strong impacts on floodplain plant communities. The present study presents forest inventories from three floodplain sites colonized by alluvial riparian vegetation in the Tapajós, Xingu and Tocantins River basins in eastern Amazonian. Results indicate that tree species of the highly specialized alluvial riparian vegetation are clearly distinct among the three river basins, although they are not very distinct from each other and environmental constraints are very similar. With only 6 of 74 species occurring in all three inventories, most tree and shrub species are restricted to only one of the rivers, indicating a high degree of local distribution. Different species occupy similar environmental niches, making these fragile riparian formations highly valuable. Conservation plans must consider species complementarily when decisions are made on where to place floodplain forest conservation units to avoid the irreversible loss of unique alluvial riparian vegetation biodiversity.

Drought responses of flood-tolerant trees in Amazonian floodplains.

BACKGROUND: Flood-tolerant tree species of the Amazonian floodplain forests are subjected to an annual dry period of variable severity imposed when low river-water levels coincide with minimal precipitation. Although the responses of these species to flooding have been examined extensively, their responses to drought, in terms of phenology, growth and physiology, have been neglected hitherto, although some information is found in publications that focus on flooding. SCOPE: The present review examines the dry phase of the annual flooding cycle. It consolidates existing knowledge regarding responses to drought among adult trees and seedlings of many Amazonian floodplain species. MAIN FINDINGS: Flood-tolerant species display variable physiological responses to dry periods and drought that indicate desiccation avoidance, such as reduced photosynthetic activity and reduced root respiration. However, tolerance and avoidance strategies for drought vary markedly among species. Drought can substantially decrease growth, biomass and photosynthetic activity among seedlings in field and laboratory studies. When compared with the responses to flooding, drought can impose higher seedling mortality and slower growth rates, especially among evergreen species. Results indicate that tolerance and avoidance strategies for drought vary markedly between species. Both seedling recruitment and photosynthetic activity are affected by drought, CONCLUSIONS: For many species, the effects of drought can be as important as flooding for survival and growth, particularly at the seedling phase of establishment, ultimately influencing species composition. In the context of climate change and predicted decreases in precipitation in the Amazon Basin, the effects of drought on plant physiology and species distribution in tropical floodplain forest ecosystems should not be overlooked.

Submerged in darkness: adaptations to prolonged submergence by woody species of the Amazonian floodplains.

BACKGROUND: In Amazonian floodplain forests, >1000 tree species grow in an environment subject to extended annual submergence which can last up to 9 months each year. Water depth can reach 10 m, fully submerging young and also adult trees, most of which reproduce during the flood season. Complete submergence occurs regularly at the seedling or sapling stage for many species that colonize low-lying positions in the flooding gradient. Here hypoxic conditions prevail close to the water surface in moving water, while anaerobic conditions are common in stagnant pools. Light intensities in the floodwater are very low. QUESTIONS AND AIMS: Despite a lack of both oxygen and light imposed by submergence for several months, most leafed seedlings survive. Furthermore, underwater growth has also been observed in several species in the field and under experimental conditions. The present article assesses how these remarkable plants react to submergence and discusses physiological mechanisms and anatomical adaptations that may explain their success.

The role of carbohydrates in seed germination and seedling establishment of Himatanthus sucuuba, an Amazonian tree with populations adapted to flooded and non-flooded conditions.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: In the Amazonian floodplains plants withstand annual periods of flooding which can last 7 months. Under these conditions seedlings remain submerged in the dark for long periods since light penetration in the water is limited. Himatanthus sucuuba is a tree species found in the 'várzea' (VZ) floodplains and adjacent non-flooded 'terra-firme' (TF) forests. Biochemical traits which enhance flood tolerance and colonization success of H. sucuuba in periodically flooded environments were investigated. METHODS: Storage carbohydrates of seeds of VZ and TF populations were extracted and analysed by HPAEC/PAD. Starch was analysed by enzyme (glucoamylase) degradation followed by quantification of glucose oxidase. Carbohydrate composition of roots of VZ and TF seedlings was studied after experimental exposure to a 15-d period of submersion in light versus darkness. KEY RESULTS: The endosperm contains a large proportion of the seed reserves, raffinose being the main non-structural carbohydrate. Around 93 % of the cell wall storage polysaccharides (percentage dry weight basis) in the endosperm of VZ seeds was composed of mannose, while soluble sugars accounted for 2.5%. In contrast, 74 % of the endosperm in TF seeds was composed of galactomannans, while 22 % of the endosperm was soluble sugars. This suggested a larger carbohydrate allocation to germination in TF populations whereas VZ populations allocate comparatively more to carbohydrates mobilized during seedling development. The concentration of root non-structural carbohydrates in non-flooded seedlings strongly decreased after a 15-d period of darkness, whereas flooded seedlings were less affected. These effects were more pronounced in TF seedlings, which showed significantly lower root non-structural carbohydrate concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: There seem to be metabolic adjustments in VZ but not TF seedlings that lead to adaptation to the combined stresses of darkness and flooding. This seems to be important for the survival of the species in these contrasting environments, leading these populations to different directions during evolution.

The Brazilian freshwater wetscape: Changes in tree community diversity and composition on climatic and geographic gradients.

Wetlands harbor an important compliment of regional plant diversity, but in many regions data on wetland diversity and composition is still lacking, thus hindering our understanding of the processes that control it. While patterns of broad-scale terrestrial diversity and composition typically correlate with contemporary climate it is not clear to what extent patterns in wetlands are complimentary, or conflicting. To elucidate this, we consolidate data from wetland forest inventories in Brazil and examine patterns of diversity and composition along temperature and rainfall gradients spanning five biomes. We collated 196 floristic inventories covering an area >220 ha and including >260,000 woody individuals. We detected a total of 2,453 tree species, with the Amazon alone accounting for nearly half. Compositional patterns indicated differences in freshwater wetland floras among Brazilian biomes, although biomes with drier, more seasonal climates tended to have a larger proportion of more widely distributed species. Maximal alpha diversity increased with annual temperature, rainfall, and decreasing seasonality, patterns broadly consistent with upland vegetation communities. However, alpha diversity-climate relationships were only revealed at higher diversity values associated with the uppermost quantiles, and in most sites diversity varied irrespective of climate. Likewise, mean biome-level differences in alpha-diversity were unexpectedly modest, even in comparisons of savanna-area wetlands to those of nearby forested regions. We describe attenuated wetland climate-diversity relationships as a shifting balance of local and regional effects on species recruitment. Locally, excessive waterlogging strongly filters species able to colonize from regional pools. On the other hand, increased water availability can accommodate a rich community of drought-sensitive immigrant species that are able to track buffered wetland microclimates. We argue that environmental conditions in many wetlands are not homogeneous with respect to regional climate, and that responses of wetland tree communities to future climate change may lag behind that of non-wetland, terrestrial habitat.

Phenology, fruit production and seed dispersal of Astrocaryum jauari (Arecaceae) in Amazonian black water floodplains.

Astrocaryum jauari Mart. (Arecaceae) is one of the commonest palm species occurring in nutritionally poor Amazonian black water floodplains. It is an emergent or subcanopy tree that grows on river banks and islands, with a wide distribution along the entire flooding gradient, tolerating flood durations between 30 and 340 days. The species is important for fish nutrition in the floodplains, and is also used for hearts of palm. In the present study, the auto-ecology of A. jauari was analysed over a period of two years in the Anavilhanas Archipelago, Rio Negro, Brazil, with a focus on phenology, fruit production, and seed dispersal. Fruit fall is annual and synchronized with high water levels, with a production of 1.6 ton of fruit ha(-1). The fruits are eaten by at least 16 species of fish which either gnaw the pulp, fragment the seed, or ingest the entire fruit, thus acting as dispersal agents. Besides ichthyocory, barochory (with subsequent vegetative propagation) is an important dispersal mode, enhancing the occurrence of large masses of individuals in the Anavilhanas islands and in the region of maximum palm heart extraction near Barcelos.

Metabolite Profiling Reveals a Specific Response in Tomato to Predaceous Chrysoperla carnea Larvae and Herbivore(s)-Predator Interactions with the Generalist Pests Tetranychus urticae and Myzus persicae.

The spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch and the aphid Myzus persicae (Sulzer) both infest a number of economically significant crops, including tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). Although used for decades to control pests, the impact of green lacewing larvae Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) on plant biochemistry was not investigated. Here, we used profiling methods and targeted analyses to explore the impact of the predator and herbivore(s)-predator interactions on tomato biochemistry. Each pest and pest-predator combination induced a characteristic metabolite signature in the leaf and the fruit thus, the plant exhibited a systemic response. The treatments had a stronger impact on non-volatile metabolites including abscisic acid and amino acids in the leaves in comparison with the fruits. In contrast, the various biotic factors had a greater impact on the carotenoids in the fruits. We identified volatiles such as myrcene and α-terpinene which were induced by pest-predator interactions but not by single species, and we demonstrated the involvement of the phytohormone abscisic acid in tritrophic interactions for the first time. More importantly, C. carnea larvae alone impacted the plant metabolome, but the predator did not appear to elicit particular defense pathways on its own. Since the presence of both C. carnea larvae and pest individuals elicited volatiles which were shown to contribute to plant defense, C. carnea larvae could therefore contribute to the reduction of pest infestation, not only by its preying activity, but also by priming responses to generalist herbivores such as T. urticae and M. persicae. On the other hand, the use of C. carnea larvae alone did not impact carotenoids thus, was not prejudicial to the fruit quality. The present piece of research highlights the specific impact of predator and tritrophic interactions with green lacewing larvae, spider mites, and aphids on different components of the tomato primary and secondary metabolism for the first time, and provides cues for further in-depth studies aiming to integrate entomological approaches and plant biochemistry.

Life history and environment of Cecropia latiloba in Amazonian floodplains.

Cecropia latiloba can be considered to be one of the most efficient colonizers of open areas in the nutrient-rich whitewater floodplains of the Amazon river. Its main strategy to be successful is the high tolerance towards waterlogging and submergence, and the fast vertical growth and reiteration capacity. This, and the tolerance of high irradiation and sediment deposition allow C. latiloba to form large monospecific stands on open sites, and thus the first closed canopy which represents the initial phase of a successional sequence which leads to highly diverse forests. This tree is extremely well adapted to the adverse growth conditions in Amazonian floodplains with prolonged periods of flooding and seedling submergence. The species occurs on the lowest levels in the flooding gradient. Although it belongs to the most often cited species under aspects of taxonomy, species distribution and general descriptions of the ecosystem, little has been published about its ecology. In the present paper the ecological, physiological and phenological characteristics of C. latiloba are described. It is an evergreen species which constantly produces new leaves. With flooding, leaf production is reduced but new leaves are flushed also with prolongued flooding. The peak of flowering and fruiting are in the flooded period. When mature, the fruits are dispersed mainly by water and fish. Seed germination occurs, without dormancy, within 5-13 days after water retreat. In the 7 months before the first flooded period seedlings reach 1 m of height, and height growth increases until 15-20 m are achieved. Photosynthetic assimilation is high, with values of up to 21 mumol CO2 m-2s-1. C. latiloba is a very flood tolerant species, and waterlogged seedlings continuously produce new leaves and adventitious roots.

Struggle in the flood: tree responses to flooding stress in four tropical floodplain systems.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: In the context of the 200th anniversary of Charles Darwin's birth in 1809, this study discusses the variation in structure and adaptation associated with survival and reproductive success in the face of environmental stresses in the trees of tropical floodplains. SCOPE: We provide a comparative review on the responses to flooding stress in the trees of freshwater wetlands in tropical environments. The four large wetlands we evaluate are: (i) Central Amazonian floodplains in South America, (ii) the Okavango Delta in Africa, (iii) the Mekong floodplains of Asia and (iv) the floodplains of Northern Australia. They each have a predictable 'flood pulse'. Although flooding height varies between the ecosystems, the annual pulse is a major driving force influencing all living organisms and a source of stress for which specialized adaptations for survival are required. MAIN POINTS: The need for trees to survive an annual flood pulse has given rise to a large variety of adaptations. However, phenological responses to the flood are similar in the four ecosystems. Deciduous and evergreen species respond with leaf shedding, although sap flow remains active for most of the year. Growth depends on adequate carbohydrate supply. Physiological adaptations (anaerobic metabolism, starch accumulation) are also required. CONCLUSIONS: Data concerning the ecophysiology and adaptations of trees in floodplain forests worldwide are extremely scarce. For successful floodplain conservation, more information is needed, ideally through a globally co-ordinated study using reproducible comparative methods. In the light of climatic change, with increasing drought, decreased groundwater availability and flooding periodicities, this knowledge is needed ever more urgently to facilitate fast and appropriate management responses to large-scale environmental change.

Forest structure of artificial islands in the Tucuruí dam reservoir in northern Brazil: a test core-area model / Estrutura da floresta em ilhas artificiais no reservatório da usina hidrelétrica de Tucuruí, Brasil: um teste do modelo de área nuclear

Construction of hydroelectric dams in tropical regions has been contributing significantly to forest fragmentation. Alterations at edges of forest fragments impact plant communities that suffer increases in tree damage and dead, and decreases in seedling recruitment. This study aimed to test the core-area model in a fragmented landscape caused by construction of a hydroelectric power plant in the Brazilian Amazon. We studied variations in forest structure between the margin and interiors of 17 islands of 8-100 hectares in the Tucuruí dam reservoir, in two plots (30 and >100m from the margin) per island. Mean tree density, basal area, seedling density and forest cover did not significantly differ between marginal and interior island plots. Also, no significant differences were found in liana density, dead tree or damage for margin and interior plots. The peculiar topographic conditions associated with the matrix habitat and shapes of the island seem to extend edge effects to the islands' centers independently of the island size, giving the interior similar physical microclimatic conditions as at the edges. We propose a protocol for assessing the ecological impacts of edge effects in fragments of natural habitat surrounded by induced (artificial) edges. The protocol involves three steps: (1) identification of focal taxa of particular conservation or management interest, (2) measurement of an "edge function" that describes the response of these taxa to induced edges, and (3) use of a "Core-Area Model" to extrapolate edge function parameters to existing or novel situations.

A construção de usinas hidrelétricas em regiões tropicais tem contribuído significativamente para a fragmentação da floresta. As alterações nas bordas de fragmentos florestais causam profundos impactos na comunidade de plantas, tais como, o aumento em de árvores mortas ou danificadas e a diminuição do recrutamento de plântulas. Este estudo tem como objetivo testar o modelo de área nuclear (core-area model) em uma paisagem de floresta fragmentada resultante da formação do lago da Usina Hidrelétrica de Tucucui na Amazônia. Foram medidas as variações na estrutura em 17 ilhas, com tamanhos variando de 8 a 100 hectares. Em cada ilha foram colocadas duas parcelas, a 1ª parcela a 30 metros da margem e a 2ª parcela a mais de 100 metros da margem da ilha. A densidade e a área basal de árvores, a densidade da regeneração natural e a cobertura do dossel da floresta não foram significativamente diferentes entre as parcelas da borda e do interior das ilhas. Também não foram encontradas diferenças significativas na densidade de lianas, no número de troncos mortos ou árvores danificadas entre as parcelas da borda e do interior das ilhas. A grande declividade do terreno das ilhas, a matriz circundante (água) e a forma irregular da ilhas podem ser os fatores responsáveis me provocar a extensão do efeito de borda em todas as ilhas analisadas, independente do tamanho e grau de isolamento. Nós propomos um novo protocolo para avaliar os impactos ecológicos dos efeitos de borda em fragmentos de habitat criados artificialmente. Este protocolo envolve três etapas: (1) identificação dos táxons biológicos de particular interesse de conservação ou de gestão (2) medição das das variáveis responsaveis pela resposta dos táxons induzidas pelo efeito de borda e (3) Usar o modelo de área nuclear (core area model) na extrapolação das variáveis medidas em situacões novas ou existentes.

Morphological and physiological adjustments to waterlogging and drought in seedlings of Amazonian floodplain trees.

Plants in central Amazonian floodplains are subjected to waterlogging or complete submersion for 50-270 days every year. Most trees have growth reductions, photosynthetic activity can be reduced for some weeks to months, and leaf fall increases during the high-water period, but leaf flush, flowering and fruiting also occur in waterlogged plants. Whether flooding can trigger the changes in phenology, growth and metabolism of the plants has not yet been established. The aim of this study was to analyse the extent to which waterlogging was directly responsible for morphological, phenological and physiological changes in floodplain seedlings. In two flooding experiments performed at different times of the year, the effects of waterlogging, submersion and drought were tested in seedlings of six species with different growth strategies. One experiment was performed in the period of highest precipitation and rising river levels, and a second experiment in the period of highest river levels and the onset of the period of lowest precipitation. All results were comparable in the two experiments, and the morphological, phenological and physiological responses were linked to the treatments. Height growth and new leaf production were not severely affected in the waterlogged seedlings. All waterlogged plants produced adventitious roots, lenticels and stem hypertrophy. Submersion and drought caused a state of rest, but soon after the water had receded, leaves resprouted. Five to 12 weeks after the end of submersion, the seedlings reached the height of the control plants, showing a high ability to compensate the period of rest induced by submergence. Only the three deciduous species subjected to waterlogging showed a different phenological behaviour in the two experiments, perhaps related to genetically fixed phenological rhythms which are synchronous to those of adult trees in the field.

Germinação de sementes de Bothriospora corymbosa (Rubiaceae) recuperadas do trato digestório de Triportheus angulatus (sardinha) no Lago Camaleão, Amazônia Central / Seed germination of Bothriospora corymbosa (Rubiaceae) recouped of digestive tract of Triportheus angulatus (sardine) in Camaleão Lake, Central Amazonian

Na Amazônia as áreas inundáveis são cobertas por florestas com alta diversidade de espécies arbóreas que proporcionam a ictiofauna frutos e sementes indispensáveis a sua alimentação. Alguns estudos de alimentação têm mostrado que a estrutura tegumentar de sementes encontradas no trato digestório de peixes, se apresentavam intactas. Assim, este estudo teve como objetivo verificar se Triportheus angulatus (Spix & Agassiz, 1829) pode ser um agente dispersor de Bothriospora corymbosa (Bth) Hook. f. (Rubiaceae). A pesquisa foi desenvolvida no lago Camaleão, Ilha da Marchantaria, Manaus. Após a captura os peixes foram levados ao laboratório de campo, para a remoção do conteúdo do trato digestório, de onde foram retiradas 200 sementes para o experimento. As sementes do controle foram retiradas de frutos maduros. A germinação e emissão da radícula foram controladas diariamente. Neste estudo verificou-se que a principal fonte de alimento de T. angulatus foram frutos e sementes de espécies da várzea. O desempenho germinativo das sementes de B. corymbosa após a passagem pelo trato digestório de T. angulatus foi de 88,5 por cento e do controle 95 por cento. Os Índices de Velocidade de Germinação (IVG) das sementes do trato digestório e do controle apresentaram diferenças significativas, porém, a passagem destas pelo intestino de T. angulatus não alterou a sua viabilidade. Assim, T. angulatus é um dos agentes dispersores de B. corymbosa, contribuindo com a distribuição desta espécie nas florestas de várzea da Amazônia Central.

The Amazon floodplains are covered by forests with a high diversity of tree species that provides ictyofauna indispensable fruits and seeds for its feeding. Some studies of feeding have shown that the tegument structure of seeds found in the digestive tract of fish presented unbroken. Thus, this study had as objective to verify if Triportheus angulatus (Spix & Agassiz, 1829) can be dispersal agent of Bothriospora corymbosa (Bth) Hook. f. (Rubiaceae). The research was developed in the Camaleão Lake, Island of the Marchantaria, Manaus. After the capture the fishes had been taken to the field laboratory, for the removal of the digestive tracts content, where 200 seeds for the experiment had been removed. The seeds of the control had been removed of ripe fruits. The germination and initial radicle emission were controlled daily. In this study it was verified that the main food source of T. angulatus had been fruits and seeds. The germinative performance of the seeds removed from digestive tract was of 88.5 percent and control 95 percent. The Indices of Speed Germination (IVG) of the seeds which had passed through the digestive system and the control, presented significant differences, however, the passage of these through the intestine of T. angulatus did not modify its viability. Thus, T. angulatus is one of the dispersal agents of B. corymbosa, contributing with the distribution of this species in the floodplain forests of the Central Amazonian.

Phenology, fruit production and seed dispersal of Astrocaryum jauari (Arecaceae) in Amazonian black water floodplains

Astrocaryum jauari Mart. (Arecaceae) is one of the commonest palm species occurring in nutritionally poor Amazonian black water floodplains. It is an emergent or subcanopy tree that grows on river banks and islands, with a wide distribution along the entire flooding gradient, tolerating flood durations between 30 and 340 days. The species is important for fish nutrition in the floodplains, and is also used for hearts of palm. In the present study, the auto-ecology of A. jauari was analysed over a period of two years in the Anavilhanas Archipelago, Rio Negro, Brazil, with a focus on phenology, fruit production, and seed dispersal. Fruit fall is annual and synchronized with high water levels, with a production of 1.6 ton of fruit ha(-1). The fruits are eaten by at least 16 species of fish which either gnaw the pulp, fragment the seed, or ingest the entire fruit, thus acting as dispersal agents. Besides ichthyocory, barochory (with subsequent vegetative propagation) is an important dispersal mode, enhancing the occurrence of large masses of individuals in the Anavilhanas islands and in the region of maximum palm heart extraction near Barcelos.

Astrocaryum jauari Mart. (Arecaceae) es una de las especies más comunes de palma en las llanuras de inundación por las llamadas “aguas negras”, aguas ricas en taninos que tienen pocos nutrientes para la fauna. Habita el subdosel que se desarrolla en riberas e islas, con una distribución amplia en toda la gradiente de inundación (resiste entre 30 y 340 días bajo el agua). La especie es importante para la nutrición de los peces y en la producción de palmito. La autoecología de A. jauari fue analizada por dos años en el Archipiélago Anavilhanas, río Negro, Brazil, con énfasis en fenología, producción de frutas, y dispersores de semillas. La caída de los frutos es anual y sincronizada con el aumento de los niveles de agua, con una producción de 1.6 ton de fruta ha-1. Las frutas son comidas por al menos de 16 especies de peces que roen la pulpa o fragmentos de semilla, o ingieren la fruta entera y actúan como agentes dispersores. Además de la ictiocoria, la barocoria y la subsecuente progragación asexual son básicos para la alta densidad de la especie.

Wood density of trees in black water floodplains of Rio Jaú National Park, Amazonia, Brazil

The Jaú National Park is the largest protected forested area in the world. The Vitória Amazônica Foundation is working towards understanding its ecosystem, to which this paper contributes. Wood density was analysed in 27 common tree species growing in the blackwater flood-plains of the Rio Jaú, an affluent of the Rio Negro (Amazonia, Brazil). Wood was sampled with an increment borer. Mean wood density of the analysed species ranged from 0.35 to 0.87 g cm-3. The mean of all sampled species was 0.67 g cm-3 (st. dev. 0.13). Lowest density was found for Hevea spruceana with 0.32 g cm-3 and highest for Crudia amazonica with 0.9 g cm-3.

O Parque Nacional do Jaú é a maior área protegida do mundo completamente coberta por floresta. Este trabalho contribui para o conhecimento deste ecossistema, em colaboração com a Fundação Vitória Amazônica. A densidade da madeira de 27 espécies de árvores comuns nas áreas inundáveis do Rio Jaú, um afluente do Rio Negro, foi determinada com o método não destrutivo do trado. A densidade média das espécies analisadas variou entre 0.35 e 0.87 g cm-3. A média de todas as espécies foi de 0.67 g cm-3 (st. dev. 0.13). A menor densidade medida foi em Hevea spruceana com 0.32 g cm-3 e a maior em Crudia amazonica com 0.9 g cm-3.

Seasonal changes of leaf Nitrogen content in trees of Amazonian floodplains

In Amazonian floodplains the trees are exposed to extreme flooding of up to 230 days a year. Waterlogging of the roots and stems affects growth and metabolic activity of the trees. An increased leaf fall in the aquatic period and annual increment rings in the wood indicate periodical growth reductions. The present study aims at documenting seasonal changes of metabolism and vitality of adult trees in the annual cycle as expressed by changes of leaf nitrogen content. Leaves of six tree species common in floodplains in Central Amazonia and typical representants of different growth strategies were collected every month between May 1994 and June 1995 in the vicinity of Manaus, Brazil. Mean leaf nitrogen content varied between 1.3% and 3.2% in the non-flooded trees. Three species showed significantly lower content in the flooded period (p=0.05, 0.001, 0.001), the difference ranging 20-25% lower than in the non-flooded period. Two species showed no significant difference while Nectandra amazonum showed 32% more in the flooded season (p=0.001). Leaf nitrogen content was generally high when new leaves were flushed (in the flooded period) and decreased continuously thereafter in all species. Three species showed an additional peak of nitrogen during the first month of the terrestrial phase, in leaves which had flushed earlier, indicating that flooding may disturb nitrogen uptake.

Em áreas inundáveis da Amazônia as árvores estão expostas a extremos de inundação de até 230 dias por ano. A submersão das raízes e do tronco afeta o crescimento e as atividades metabólicas das árvores. O aumento da queda de folhas na fase aquática e o incremento anual nos anéis do lenho, indicam reduções de crescimento periódicas. O presente estudo visa documentar em um ciclo anual mudanças sazonais no metabolismo e vitalidade de árvores adultas, expressas pelas mudanças no conteúdo de nitrogênio das folhas. Seis espécies de árvores comuns em áreas inundáveis da Amazônia Central e típicos representantes de diferentes estratégias de crescimento, tiveram suas folhas coletadas a cada mês entre maio de 1994 e junho de 1995, nas cercanias da cidade de Manaus, Brasil. A média do conteúdo de nitrogênio variou entre 1,3% e 3,2% em árvores não inundadas. Três espécies tiveram concentrações de significativamente menores no período de inundação (p = 0,05, 0,01, 0,01), sendo 20 a 25% menores que as concentrações no período não inundado. Duas espécies não tiveram diferenças significativas, enquanto Nectandra amazonum teve 32 % mais quando inundada (p = 0.001). O conteúdo de nitrogênio foliar foi geralmente alto quando brotaram folhas novas (no período inundado) seguido por um decréscimo contínuo, embora três espécies atingiram seu pico de conteúdo de no primeiro mês da fase terrestre, em folhas que haviam brotadas antes, indicando que a inundação possivelmente inibe a assimilação de nitrogênio.

Life history and environment of Cecropia latiloba in Amazonian floodplains

Cecropia latiloba can be considered to be one of the most efficient colonizers of open areas in the nutrient-rich whitewater floodplains of the Amazon river. Its main strategy to be successful is the high tolerance towards waterlogging and submergence, and the fast vertical growth and reiteration capacity. This, and the tolerance of high irradiation and sediment deposition allow C. latiloba to form large monospecific stands on open sites, and thus the first closed canopy which represents the initial phase of a successional sequence which leads to highly diverse forests. This tree is extremely well adapted to the adverse growth conditions in Amazonian floodplains with prolonged periods of flooding and seedling submergence. The species occurs on the lowest levels in the flooding gradient. Although it belongs to the most often cited species under aspects of taxonomy, species distribution and general descriptions of the ecosystem, little has been published about its ecology. In the present paper the ecological, physiological and phenological characteristics of C. latiloba are described. It is an evergreen species which constantly produces new leaves. With flooding, leaf production is reduced but new leaves are flushed also with prolongued flooding. The peak of flowering and fruiting are in the flooded period. When mature, the fruits are dispersed mainly by water and fish. Seed germination occurs, without dormancy, within 5-13 days after water retreat. In the 7 months before the first flooded period seedlings reach 1 m of height, and height growth increases until 15-20 m are achieved. Photosynthetic assimilation is high, with values of up to 21 mumol CO2 m-2s-1. C. latiloba is a very flood tolerant species, and waterlogged seedlings continuously produce new leaves and adventitious roots.