The effects of parental acculturation and parenting practices on the substance use of Mexican-heritage adolescents from southwestern Mexican neighborhoods.

A sample of 189 Mexican-heritage seventh grade adolescents reported their substance use, while one of the child's parents reported parent's acculturation and communication, involvement, and positive parenting with his or her child. Higher levels of parental acculturation predicted greater marijuana use, whereas parent communication predicted lower cigarette and marijuana use among girls. A significant parent acculturation by parent communication interaction for cigarette use was due to parent communication being highly negatively associated with marijuana use for high acculturated parents, with attenuated effects for low acculturated parents. A significant child gender by parent acculturation by parent positive parenting interaction was found. For girls, positive parenting had a stronger association with lower cigarette use for high acculturated parents. For boys, positive parenting had a stronger association with reduced cigarette use for low acculturated parents. Discussion focuses on how acculturation and gender impact family processes among Mexican-heritage adolescents.

Acculturation and health care utilization among Mexican heritage women in the United States.

With the increasing Latino population in the United States, it is critical to examine the influence of the process of acculturation on health care practices and utilization. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between acculturation level and post-partum visit (PPV) compliance among Latinas participating in a larger psycho-educational intervention aimed at encouraging women to engage in positive healthcare practices. Acculturation was measured with the Bicultural Involvement Questionnaire which assigned participants to five categories: Assimilated, Separated, Moderate, Bicultural and Alienation. Logistic Regression analyses were conducted to predict post-partum visit attendance. Odds ratios and relative risk of not attending the post-partum visit are presented. Results suggest women in the Separation and Assimilation groups were less likely than bicultural group members to attend the PPV. The only other variable that was significant in this analysis is the group condition, indicating that the intervention group was more likely to attend the PPV than the control group. Women identifying as bicultural seem to participate more actively in their own healthcare as they draw on the cultural assets that have a positive influence on informal health practices, such as healthy eating and refraining from drug use. Bicultural group members can also use formal skills related to language and knowledge of the dominant culture to help effectively navigate the healthcare system. Implications for research, intervention and practice are discussed to improve healthcare practices and increase utilization among Latinas.

Examining school-based bullying interventions using multilevel discrete time hazard modeling.

Although schools have been trying to address bullying by utilizing different approaches that stop or reduce the incidence of bullying, little remains known about what specific intervention strategies are most successful in reducing bullying in the school setting. Using the social-ecological framework, this paper examines school-based disciplinary interventions often used to deliver consequences to deter the reoccurrence of bullying and aggressive behaviors among school-aged children. Data for this study are drawn from the School-Wide Information System (SWIS) with the final analytic sample consisting of 1,221 students in grades K - 12 who received an office disciplinary referral for bullying during the first semester. Using Kaplan-Meier Failure Functions and Multi-level discrete time hazard models, determinants of the probability of a student receiving a second referral over time were examined. Of the seven interventions tested, only Parent-Teacher Conference (AOR = 0.65, p < .01) and Loss of Privileges (AOR = 0.71, p < .10) were significant in reducing the rate of the reoccurrence of bullying and aggressive behaviors. By using a social-ecological framework, schools can develop strategies that deter the reoccurrence of bullying by identifying key factors that enhance a sense of connection between the students' mesosystems as well as utilizing disciplinary strategies that take into consideration student's microsystem roles.

The influence of linguistic acculturation and parental monitoring on the substance use of Mexican-heritage adolescents in predominantly Mexican enclaves of the Southwest US.

This study presents the results of an assessment of 377 Mexican heritage 7th grade adolescents attending middle school in Arizona. The students answered questions concerning personal substance use, linguistic acculturation and parental monitoring. Linguistic acculturation in general did not predict substance use, while greater perceived parental monitoring significantly predicted a lesser likelihood to use substances for both boys and girls. There was a significant acculturation by parental monitoring interaction for every use of alcohol for boys, with parent monitoring effects being more pronounced in reducing alcohol use among highly acculturated boys. Results are discussed in terms of how acculturation impacts family processes and the drug use behaviors of Mexican heritage adolescents living in predominantly Mexican enclaves.

Using community based participatory research to create a culturally grounded intervention for parents and youth to prevent risky behaviors.

The principal goal of this article is to contribute to the field of prevention science by providing a sequential description of how Community Based Participatory Research (CBPR) was used to develop a parent education curriculum aimed at preventing and decreasing adolescent drug use and risky sexual behaviors. CBPR principles are outlined, and information is provided on the unique contributions of researchers and community members who came together to develop this parent education program. Focus group information is presented as an exemplar to illustrate how thematic content from focus groups was used to inform the development of this parent education curriculum. A step by step description is given to facilitate replication of this process by other prevention researchers who are interested in applying this CBPR approach to develop a culturally responsive parent education intervention.

The Influence of Linguistic Acculturation and Gender on the Initiation of Substance Use Among Mexican Heritage Preadolescents in the Borderlands.

This article examined the impact of linguistic acculturation and gender on the substance use initiation of a sample of 1,473 Mexican heritage preadolescents attending 30 public schools in Phoenix, Arizona. It was hypothesized that linguistic acculturation operates differently as a risk or protective factor for young children than for older youth. The study used discrete-time event history methods to model the rate at which nonusing children initiate substance use. Alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana, and inhalants were studied separately while inhalant use was examined more closely. Results suggested that while linguistic acculturation is a risk factor for Mexican heritage preadolescents, this association depended on gender, the linguistic acculturation context (family, friends, or media), and the type of substance. For inhalants, higher linguistic acculturation with friends was inversely associated with drug initiation both for boys and girls. Implications for preventive science and future intervention research are discussed.

Parental monitoring and changes in substance use among Latino/a and non-Latino/a preadolescents in the Southwest.

Prior research shows parental monitoring is associated with less substance use, but these studies have some limitations. Many examine older adolescents from White, Euro-American heritage, and cross-sectional studies are unable to test if parental monitoring decreases substance use over time. We address these limitations with longitudinal data of 2,034 primarily Latino preadolescents in Phoenix, Arizona, USA in 2004-2005. We use multilevel regression with multiple imputation of missing data. We find parental monitoring has beneficial, longitudinal effects on youth's substance use and related intentions, norms, and attitudes. Effects are invariant to gender or Latino ethnicity, except in the case of marijuana.

The protective and risk effects of parents and peers on substance use, attitudes and behaviors of Mexican and Mexican American female and male adolescents.

This study explores the extent to which parental and peer behaviors and norms may affect substance use, personal anti-drug norms and intentions to use drugs in a group of Mexican heritage preadolescents in the Southwest, and whether these parental and peer influences differ according to gender. Secondary data from a randomized trial of a drug prevention program was used. The sample consisted of 2,733 adolescents. The outcomes were recent alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use, personal anti-drug norms and intentions to use drugs. In this study, peer variables were more consistently related to the outcomes than parent variables, with the exception of parental injunctive norms which were the most predictive parent factor. Recommendations are provided to further study the protective processes that are maintained through the transition into adolescence and acculturation as a foundation for the design of resiliency-focused prevention interventions.

Cohesion and conflict: family influences on adolescent alcohol use in immigrant Latino families.

This study examines how cohesion and parent­child conflict relate to alcohol use among Mexican-heritage adolescents. The sample consists of 120 adolescents (14 to 18 years) participants from the Southwest sub-sample of the Latino Acculturation and Health Project. Lifetime and recent alcohol use and binge drinking were tested. Results from the logistic regressions identified high and low levels of family cohesion as a risk factor for alcohol use compared to medium levels of cohesion, and parent­child conflict predicted lifetime use and binge drinking. Low and high family cohesion levels appear to be especially problematic among Mexican adolescents who are trying to navigate two different cultural worlds. Although high family cohesion is often a characteristic of Mexican families, Mexican-heritage adolescents may view high family cohesion as a hindrance to their own independence. Unresolved conflict seems to be connected to children's problem behaviors and alcohol misuse could be utilized by adolescents as a mechanism to reduce emotional distress caused by family tensions.

Effects of Familism and Family Cohesion on Problem Behaviors among Adolescents in Mexican Immigrant Families in the Southwest U.S.

This study used baseline data from the Southwest sample of the Latino Acculturation and Health project to examine whether familism and cohesion are related to problem behaviors in a sample of Mexican and Mexican American adolescents in the Southwest U.S. This study is important to practitioners, and prevention and intervention researchers because it examines buffers to problem behaviors among an increasingly at-risk population. The results confirm that familism is a powerful protective factor against aggressive behavior, conduct problems and rule breaking in this sample. The results draw attention to the importance of family among Mexican and Mexican American families. Family cohesion, however, was found to be protective against conduct problems and rule breaking but not aggressive behavior. Possible explanations for this result are discussed. Additional findings suggest that adolescents who have the ability to navigate between culture of origin and mainstream culture are also protected against some problem behaviors.

Effects of Parental Monitoring, Permissiveness, and Injunctive Norms on Substance Use Among Mexican and Mexican American Adolescents.

The prevention literature has given little attention to how parental influences affect substance use among Mexican origin adolescents, even though they form part of the largest ethnic minority group in the United States. This study explored the effects of three types of parental influences-parental monitoring of the child's whereabouts, degree of parental permissiveness, and the strength of parental injunctive norms discouraging substance use-on alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use and anti-drug norms. Results showed that parental permissiveness and parental injunctive norms, particularly anti-drug injunctive norms, had the strongest effects on the substance use outcomes, but parental monitoring generally was not a significant predictor. These results and implications for prevention are discussed in light of Mexican cultural norms toward substance use, gender roles, and family roles.

God forbid! Substance use among religious and non-religious youth.

Among a predominantly Mexican and Mexican American sample of preadolescents, religiosity protected against lifetime alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use and recent alcohol and cigarette use when religious affiliation was controlled. When religiosity was controlled, however, adolescents with no religious affiliation and adolescents who were religiously affiliated reported similar substance use outcomes. Interaction effects demonstrated that the protective effect of greater religiosity operated more strongly in some religions than in others for selected outcomes. Overall, the impact of religiosity on reported drug use did not differ significantly for more and less acculturated Latino youth.

The Parent-Child Acculturation Gap, Parental Monitoring, and Substance Use in Mexican Heritage Adolescents in Mexican Neighborhoods of the Southwest U.S.

A sample of 206 Mexican-heritage 7th-grade adolescents attending predominantly Mexican-heritage schools in Arizona was assessed on their linguistic acculturation, perceived parental monitoring, and substance use. One of their parents also reported on their own parental level of acculturation. While greater parental acculturation predicted greater marijuana use, the acculturation gap (child's level of acculturation over and above that of the parent) was not predictive of substance use. There was a significant acculturation gap by parental monitoring interaction for marijuana use, where the negative correlation between parental monitoring and marijuana use was attenuated for parent-youth dyads that exhibited the largest acculturation gap. This suggests that a greater parent-youth cultural distance (the acculturation gap) attenuates that protective effect of parental monitoring on youth marijuana use. Results are discussed in terms of how the acculturation gap increases the risk for problem behaviors in Mexican American adolescents through its effect on family processes.

THE MODERATING EFFECTS OF ETHNIC IDENTIFICATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARENTAL MONITORING AND SUBSTANCE USE IN MEXICAN HERITAGE ADOLESCENTS IN THE SOUTHWEST UNITED STATES.

The purpose of this study was to assess the combined effects of ethnic identification and perceived parental monitoring on the substance use of a sample of 162 male and 192 female Mexican heritage seventh grade adolescents. Parental monitoring predicted lower risk for substance use. An interaction of ethnic identification by parental monitoring was observed with parental monitoring exhibiting stronger effects in decreasing use of alcohol use among boys who scored low on ethnic identification. For girls, decreased substance use was predicted by stronger parental monitoring coupled with high ethnic identification. Results are discussed in terms of how the youth's ethnic identification is a distinct process from acculturation, and how ethnic identification may operate as an added protective factor in conjunction with parental monitoring, as protective factors against adolescent substance abuse.

Hopelessness, family stress, and depression among Mexican-heritage mothers in the southwest.

This article reports on the findings of a study conducted with a sample of 136 Mexican-heritage mothers residing in a large southwestern metropolitan area. From a risk-and-resiliency perspective, hopelessness was approached as a culturally specific response to family stress and other challenges encountered by Mexican immigrants. Although Mexican-heritage women and other Latinas have higher prevalence rates of psychiatric disorders than their male counterparts, they experience disparity in accessing mental health services. Multiple regression analysis was used to explore the relationships among hopelessness, depression, social support, and other variables. Culturally rooted resiliency and a sense of optimism connected to immigration appear to shelter Mexican-heritage mothers from hopelessness and depression. A very large households and nonworking status were found to elevate the risk of hopelessness. Because poverty and acculturation levels were not related to hopelessness or depression, further culturally specific research distinguishing hopelessness from depression is recommended. Given that hopelessness sometimes presents itself independently from depression, implications for practice include the need to refine mental health assessment tools to capitalize on the resiliency among immigrant mothers and avoid misdiagnosis.

Parental Monitoring, Religious Involvement and Drug Use Among Latino and Non-Latino Youth in the Southwestern United States.

AIMS: The purpose of this study was to examine parental monitoring practices and religious involvement (protective factors) and substance use among Mexican American and Non-Latino adolescents in the Southwest of the United States. FRAMEWORK: We also relied on social control theories to guide our investigation of why adolescents may choose not to use drugs. PARTICIPANTS: The sample was N=1087 adolescents, the age ranged from 13 to 15 years, and the gender distribution was approximately equal. There were 71% Mexican Americans and 29% non-Latinos in the sample. METHODS: a number of measures were used including recent substance use, religiosity, religious affiliation, parental monitoring, parental permissiveness, parental norms, and acculturation. Linear regressions were used to examine the relationship between the variables of interest and the outcomes. RESULTS: Although the effect sizes of the significant relationships were modest, the findings are of interest because they reinforce the importance of the role of parents in the lives of their adolescents and supports previous studies that find that parents have great influence on children's behaviors including substance use. The results suggest that acculturating adolescents benefit from having clear rules from their parents concerning substance use, and from believing that there is some kind of consequence attached to their behavior. Parental monitoring, by itself, did not explain lower levels of drug use among these adolescents; but it was a predictor of adolescent strong anti-drug personal norms. This study is useful to social workers and other professionals working with parents and adolescents as it provides concrete evidence of possible parents pathway of influence on their children's health status.

Familias Sanas: an intervention designed to increase rates of postpartum visits among Latinas.

Familias Sanas (Healthy Families) is an educational intervention implemented and tested with low-income, immigrant Latina mothers. The program was designed to reduce existing health disadvantages of Latinas by empowering them to take active part in the management of their health and by encouraging them to advocate for themselves. Familias Sanas was implemented at a prenatal clinic located at a major urban hospital in the southwestern U.S. The efficacy of the intervention was evaluated through a randomized control trial measuring the participants' rate of postpartum visits and other relevant well-being measures. Initial findings show a significant effect of the intervention, with participants in the experimental group returning for their postpartum clinic visit at a higher rate in comparison with the control group. The results are discussed from a culturally specific perspective. Practice, policy, and research implications and recommendations are provided.

LATINO FAMILY MENTAL HEALTH: EXPLORING THE ROLE OF DISCRIMINATION AND FAMILISMO.

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of discrimination and familismo on internalizing mental health symptoms among two generations of Latinos, youth and their parents, residing in the Southwest region of the United States. Data from the Latino Acculturation and Health Project was used to determine the direct and moderation effects of discrimination and familismo on internalizing mental health symptoms. The sample included 150 Latino youth-parent dyads who were immigrants or U.S. born. Descriptive results indicate that youth had significantly higher scores on the familismo scale whereas parents reported higher levels of perceived discrimination. Regression analyses results revealed direct effects of familismo and perceived discrimination on internalizing mental health symptoms. Implications for practice are discussed.