Non-Invasive Transcranial Nano-Pulsed Laser Therapy Ameliorates Cognitive Function and Prevents Aberrant Migration of Neural Progenitor Cells in the Hippocampus of Rats Subjected to Traumatic Brain Injury.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can lead to chronic diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders and epilepsy. The hippocampus, one of the most affected brain region after TBI, plays a critical role in learning and memory and is one of the only two regions in the brain in which new neurons are generated throughout life from neural stem cells (NSC) in the dentate gyrus (DG). These cells migrate into the granular layer where they integrate into the hippocampus circuitry. While increased proliferation of NSC in the hippocampus is known to occur shortly after injury, reduced neuronal maturation and aberrant migration of progenitor cells in the hilus contribute to cognitive and neurological dysfunctions, including epilepsy. Here, we tested the ability of a novel, proprietary non-invasive nano-pulsed laser therapy (NPLT), that combines near-infrared laser light (808 nm) and laser-generated, low-energy optoacoustic waves, to mitigate TBI-driven impairments in neurogenesis and cognitive function in the rat fluid percussion injury model. We show that injured rats treated with NPLT performed significantly better in a hippocampus-dependent cognitive test than did sham rats. In the DG, NPLT significantly decreased TBI-dependent impaired maturation and aberrant migration of neural progenitors, while preventing TBI-induced upregulation of specific microRNAs (miRNAs) in NSC. NPLT did not significantly reduce TBI-induced microglia activation in the hippocampus. Our data strongly suggest that NPLT has the potential to be an effective therapeutic tool for the treatment of TBI-induced cognitive dysfunction and dysregulation of neurogenesis, and point to modulation of miRNAs as a possible mechanism mediating its neuroprotective effects.

Effects of Blast-induced Neurotrauma on Pressurized Rodent Middle Cerebral Arteries.

Though there have been studies on the histopathological and behavioral effects of blast exposure, fewer have been dedicated to blast's cerebral vascular effects. Impact (i.e., non-blast) traumatic brain injury (TBI) is known to decrease pressure autoregulation in the cerebral vasculature in both humans and experimental animals. The hypothesis that blast-induced traumatic brain injury (bTBI), like impact TBI, results in impaired cerebral vascular reactivity was tested by measuring myogenic dilatory responses to reduced intravascular pressure in rodent middle cerebral arterial (MCA) segments from rats subjected to mild bTBI using an Advanced Blast Simulator (ABS) shock tube. Adult, male Sprague-Dawley rats were anesthetized, intubated, ventilated and prepared for Sham bTBI (identical manipulation and anesthesia except for blast injury) or mild bTBI. Rats were randomly assigned to receive Sham bTBI or mild bTBI followed by sacrifice 30 or 60 min post-injury. Immediately after bTBI, righting reflex (RR) suppression times were assessed, euthanasia at the time points post-injury was completed, the brain was harvested and the individual MCA segments were collected, mounted and pressurized. As the intraluminal pressure perfused through the arterial segments was reduced in 20 mmHg increments from 100 to 20 mmHg, MCA diameters were measured and recorded. With decreasing intraluminal pressure, MCA diameters steadily increased significantly above baseline in the Sham bTBI groups while MCA dilator responses were significantly reduced (p < 0.05) in both bTBI groups as evidenced by the impaired, smaller MCA diameters recorded for the bTBI groups. In addition, RR suppression in the bTBI groups was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than in the Sham bTBI groups. MCA's collected from the Sham bTBI groups exhibited typical vasodilatory properties to decreases in intraluminal pressure while MCA's collected following bTBI exhibited significantly impaired myogenic vasodilatory responses to reduced pressure that persisted for at least 60 min after bTBI.

Traumatic brain injury induces long-lasting changes in immune and regenerative signaling.

There are no existing treatments for the long-term degenerative effects of traumatic brain injury (TBI). This is due, in part, to our limited understanding of chronic TBI and uncertainty about which proposed mechanisms for long-term neurodegeneration are amenable to treatment with existing or novel drugs. Here, we used microarray and pathway analyses to interrogate TBI-induced gene expression in the rat hippocampus and cortex at several acute, subchronic and chronic intervals (24 hours, 2 weeks, 1, 2, 3, 6 and 12 months) after parasagittal fluid percussion injury. We used Ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA) and Gene Ontology enrichment analysis to identify significantly expressed genes and prominent cell signaling pathways that are dysregulated weeks to months after TBI and potentially amenable to therapeutic modulation. We noted long-term, coordinated changes in expression of genes belonging to canonical pathways associated with the innate immune response (i.e., NF-κB signaling, NFAT signaling, Complement System, Acute Phase Response, Toll-like receptor signaling, and Neuroinflammatory signaling). Bioinformatic analysis suggested that dysregulation of these immune mediators-many are key hub genes-would compromise multiple cell signaling pathways essential for homeostatic brain function, particularly those involved in cell survival and neuroplasticity. Importantly, the temporal profile of beneficial and maladaptive immunoregulatory genes in the weeks to months after the initial TBI suggests wider therapeutic windows than previously indicated.

Detecting Behavioral Deficits in Rats After Traumatic Brain Injury.

With the increasing incidence of traumatic brain injury (TBI) in both civilian and military populations, TBI is now considered a chronic disease; however, few studies have investigated the long-term effects of injury in rodent models of TBI. Shown here are behavioral measures that are well-established in TBI research for times early after injury, such as two weeks, until two months. Some of these methods have previously been used at later times after injury, up to one year, but by very few laboratories. The methods demonstrated here are a short neurological assessment to test reflexes, a Beam-Balance to test balance, a Beam-Walk to test balance and motor coordination, and a working memory version of the Morris water maze that can be sensitive to deficits in reference memory. Male rats were handled and pre-trained to neurological, balance, and motor coordination tests prior to receiving parasagittal fluid percussion injury (FPI) or sham injury. Rats can be tested on the short neurological assessment (neuroscore), the beam-balance, and the Beam-Walk multiple times, while testing on the water maze can only be done once. This difference is because rats can remember the task, thus confounding the results if repeated testing is attempted in the same animal. When testing from one to three days after injury, significant differences are detected in all three non-cognitive tasks. However, differences in the Beam-Walk task were not detectable at later time points (after 3 months). Deficits were detected at 3 months in the Beam-Balance and at 6 months in the neuroscore. Deficits in working memory were detected out to 12 months after injury, and a deficit in a reference memory first appeared at 12 months. Thus, standard behavioral tests can be useful measures of persistent behavioral deficits after FPI.

Effects of Mild Blast Traumatic Brain Injury on Cerebral Vascular, Histopathological, and Behavioral Outcomes in Rats.

To determine the effects of mild blast-induced traumatic brain injury (bTBI), several groups of rats were subjected to blast injury or sham injury in a compressed air-driven shock tube. The effects of bTBI on relative cerebral perfusion (laser Doppler flowmetry [LDF]), and mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) cerebral vascular resistance were measured for 2 h post-bTBI. Dilator responses to reduced intravascular pressure were measured in isolated middle cerebral arterial (MCA) segments, ex vivo, 30 and 60 min post-bTBI. Neuronal injury was assessed (Fluoro-Jade C [FJC]) 24 and 48 h post-bTBI. Neurological outcomes (beam balance and walking tests) and working memory (Morris water maze [MWM]) were assessed 2 weeks post-bTBI. Because impact TBI (i.e., non-blast TBI) is often associated with reduced cerebral perfusion and impaired cerebrovascular function in part because of the generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species such as peroxynitrite (ONOO-), the effects of the administration of the ONOO- scavenger, penicillamine methyl ester (PenME), on cerebral perfusion and cerebral vascular resistance were measured for 2 h post-bTBI. Mild bTBI resulted in reduced relative cerebral perfusion and MCA dilator responses to reduced intravascular pressure, increases in cerebral vascular resistance and in the numbers of FJC-positive cells in the brain, and significantly impaired working memory. PenME administration resulted in significant reductions in cerebral vascular resistance and a trend toward increased cerebral perfusion, suggesting that ONOO- may contribute to blast-induced cerebral vascular dysfunction.

Nano-Pulsed Laser Therapy Is Neuroprotective in a Rat Model of Blast-Induced Neurotrauma.

We have developed a novel, non-invasive nano-pulsed laser therapy (NPLT) system that combines the benefits of near-infrared laser light (808 nm) and ultrasound (optoacoustic) waves, which are generated with each short laser pulse within the tissue. We tested NPLT in a rat model of blast-induced neurotrauma (BINT) to determine whether transcranial application of NPLT provides neuroprotective effects. The laser pulses were applied on the intact rat head 1 h after injury using a specially developed fiber-optic system. Vestibulomotor function was assessed on post-injury days (PIDs) 1-3 on the beam balance and beam walking tasks. Cognitive function was assessed on PIDs 6-10 using a working memory Morris water maze (MWM) test. BDNF and caspase-3 messenger RNA (mRNA) expression was measured by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) in laser-captured cortical neurons. Microglia activation and neuronal injury were assessed in brain sections by immunofluorescence using specific antibodies against CD68 and active caspase-3, respectively. In the vestibulomotor and cognitive (MWM) tests, NPLT-treated animals performed significantly better than the untreated blast group and similarly to sham animals. NPLT upregulated mRNA encoding BDNF and downregulated the pro-apoptotic protein caspase-3 in cortical neurons. Immunofluorescence demonstrated that NPLT inhibited microglia activation and reduced the number of cortical neurons expressing activated caspase-3. NPLT also increased expression of BDNF in the hippocampus and the number of proliferating progenitor cells in the dentate gyrus. Our data demonstrate a neuroprotective effect of NPLT and prompt further studies aimed to develop NPLT as a therapeutic intervention after traumatic brain injury (TBI).

Effects of AAV-mediated knockdown of nNOS and GPx-1 gene expression in rat hippocampus after traumatic brain injury.

Virally mediated RNA interference (RNAi) to knock down injury-induced genes could improve functional outcome after traumatic brain injury (TBI); however, little is known about the consequences of gene knockdown on downstream cell signaling pathways and how RNAi influences neurodegeneration and behavior. Here, we assessed the effects of adeno-associated virus (AAV) siRNA vectors that target two genes with opposing roles in TBI pathogenesis: the allegedly detrimental neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) and the potentially protective glutathione peroxidase 1 (GPx-1). In rat hippocampal progenitor cells, three siRNAs that target different regions of each gene (nNOS, GPx-1) effectively knocked down gene expression. However, in vivo, in our rat model of fluid percussion brain injury, the consequences of AAV-siRNA were variable. One nNOS siRNA vector significantly reduced the number of degenerating hippocampal neurons and showed a tendency to improve working memory. GPx-1 siRNA treatment did not alter TBI-induced neurodegeneration or working memory deficits. Nevertheless, microarray analysis of laser captured, virus-infected neurons showed that knockdown of nNOS or GPx-1 was specific and had broad effects on downstream genes. Since nNOS knockdown only modestly ameliorated TBI-induced working memory deficits, despite widespread genomic changes, manipulating expression levels of single genes may not be sufficient to alter functional outcome after TBI.

Development of a novel imaging system for cell therapy in the brain.

INTRODUCTION: Stem cells have been evaluated as a potential therapeutic approach for several neurological disorders of the central and peripheral nervous system as well as for traumatic brain and spinal cord injury. Currently, the lack of a reliable and safe method to accurately and non-invasively locate the site of implantation and track the migration of stem cells in vivo hampers the development of stem cell therapy and its clinical application. In this report, we present data that demonstrate the feasibility of using the human sodium iodide symporter (hNIS) as a reporter gene for tracking neural stem cells (NSCs) after transplantation in the brain by using single-photon emission tomography/computed tomography (SPECT/CT) imaging. METHODS: NSCs were isolated from the hippocampus of adult rats (Hipp-NSCs) and transduced with a lentiviral vector containing the hNIS gene. Hipp-NSCs expressing the hNIS (NIS-Hipp-NSCs) were characterized in vitro and in vivo after transplantation in the rat brain and imaged by using technetium-99m ((99m)Tc) and a small rodent SPECT/CT apparatus. Comparisons were made between Hipp-NSCs and NIS-Hipp-NSCs, and statistical analysis was performed by using two-tailed Student's t test. RESULTS: Our results show that the expression of the hNIS allows the repeated visualization of NSCs in vivo in the brain by using SPECT/CT imaging and does not affect the ability of Hipp-NSCs to generate neuronal and glial cells in vitro and in vivo. CONCLUSIONS: These data support the use of the hNIS as a reporter gene for non-invasive imaging of NSCs in the brain. The repeated, non-invasive tracking of implanted cells will accelerate the development of effective stem cell therapies for traumatic brain injury and other types of central nervous system injury.

Optoacoustic detection of intra- and extracranial hematomas in rats after blast injury.

Surgical drainage of intracranial hematomas is often required within the first four hours after traumatic brain injury (TBI) to avoid death or severe disability. Although CT and MRI permit hematoma diagnosis, they can be used only at a major health-care facility. This delays hematoma diagnosis and therapy. We proposed to use an optoacoustic technique for rapid, noninvasive diagnosis of hematomas. In this study we developed a near-infrared OPO-based optoacoustic system for hematoma diagnosis and cerebral venous blood oxygenation monitoring in rats. A specially-designed blast device was used to inflict TBI in anesthetized rats. Optoacoustic signals were recorded from the superior sagittal sinus and hematomas that allowed for measurements of their oxygenations. These results indicate that the optoacoustic technique may be used for early diagnosis of hematomas and may provide important information for improving outcomes in patients with TBI.

Traumatic brain injury in vivo and in vitro contributes to cerebral vascular dysfunction through impaired gap junction communication between vascular smooth muscle cells.

Gap junctions (GJs) contribute to cerebral vasodilation, vasoconstriction, and, perhaps, to vascular compensatory mechanisms, such as autoregulation. To explore the effects of traumatic brain injury (TBI) on vascular GJ communication, we assessed GJ coupling in A7r5 vascular smooth muscle (VSM) cells subjected to rapid stretch injury (RSI) in vitro and VSM in middle cerebral arteries (MCAs) harvested from rats subjected to fluid percussion TBI in vivo. Intercellular communication was evaluated by measuring fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP). In VSM cells in vitro, FRAP increased significantly (p<0.05 vs. sham RSI) after mild RSI, but decreased significantly (p<0.05 vs. sham RSI) after moderate or severe RSI. FRAP decreased significantly (p<0.05 vs. sham RSI) 30 min and 2 h, but increased significantly (p<0.05 vs. sham RSI) 24 h after RSI. In MCAs harvested from rats 30 min after moderate TBI in vivo, FRAP was reduced significantly (p<0.05), compared to MCAs from rats after sham TBI. In VSM cells in vitro, pretreatment with the peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)) scavenger, 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-sulfonatophenyl)prophyrinato iron[III], prevented RSI-induced reductions in FRAP. In isolated MCAs from rats treated with the ONOO(-) scavenger, penicillamine, GJ coupling was not impaired by fluid percussion TBI. In addition, penicillamine treatment improved vasodilatory responses to reduced intravascular pressure in MCAs harvested from rats subjected to moderate fluid percussion TBI. These results indicate that TBI reduced GJ coupling in VSM cells in vitro and in vivo through mechanisms related to generation of the potent oxidant, ONOO(-).

Effects of trauma, hemorrhage and resuscitation in aged rats.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of death in the elderly and the incidence of mortality and morbidity increases with age. This study tested the hypothesis that, after TBI followed by hemorrhagic hypotension (HH) and resuscitation, cerebral blood flow (CBF) would decrease more in aged compared with young rats. Young adult (4-6 months) and aged (20-24 months) male Sprague-Dawley rats were anesthetized with isoflurane, prepared for parasagittal fluid percussion injury (FPI) and randomly assigned to receive either moderate FPI (2.0 atm) only, moderate FPI+severe HH (40 mm Hg for 45 min) followed by return of shed blood, or sham FPI. Intracranial pressure (ICP), CBF, and mean arterial pressure (MAP) were measured and, after twenty-four hours survival, the rats were euthanized and their brains were sectioned and stained with Fluoro-Jade (FJ), a dye that stains injured neurons. After moderate FPI, severe HH and reinfusion of shed blood, MAP and CBF were significantly reduced in the aged group, compared to the young group. Both FPI and FPI+HH groups significantly increased the numbers of FJ-positive neurons in hippocampal cell layers CA1, CA2 and CA3 (p<0.05 vs Sham) in young and aged rats. Despite differences in post-resuscitation MAP and CBF, there were no differences in the numbers of FJ-positive neurons in aged compared to young rats after FPI, HH and blood resuscitation. Although cerebral hypoperfusion in the aged rats was not associated with increased hippocampal cell injury, the trauma-induced reductions in CBF and post-resuscitation blood pressure may have resulted in damage to brain regions that were not examined or neurological or behavioral impairments that were not assessed in this study. Therefore, the maintenance of normal blood pressure and cerebral perfusion would be advisable in the treatment of elderly patients after TBI.

Inflammatory consequences in a rodent model of mild traumatic brain injury.

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), particularly mild "blast type" injuries resulting from improvised exploding devices and many sport-caused injuries to the brain, result in long-term impairment of cognition and behavior. Our central hypothesis is that there are inflammatory consequences to mTBI that persist over time and, in part, are responsible for resultant pathogenesis and clinical outcomes. We used an adaptation (1 atmosphere pressure) of a well-characterized moderate-to-severe brain lateral fluid percussion (LFP) brain injury rat model. Our mild LFP injury resulted in acute increases in interleukin-1α/ß and tumor necrosis factor alpha levels, macrophage/microglial and astrocytic activation, evidence of heightened cellular stress, and blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction that were evident as early as 3-6 h postinjury. Both glial activation and BBB dysfunction persisted for 18 days postinjury.

Traumatic brain injury and hemorrhagic hypotension suppress neuroprotective gene expression in injured hippocampal neurons.

BACKGROUND: After traumatic brain injury, memory dysfunction is due in part to damage to the hippocampus. To study the molecular mechanisms of this selective vulnerability, the authors used laser capture microdissection of neurons stained with Fluoro-Jade to directly compare gene expression in injured (Fluoro-Jade-positive) and adjacent uninjured (Fluoro-Jade-negative) rat hippocampal neurons after traumatic brain injury and traumatic brain injury plus hemorrhagic hypotension. METHODS: Twelve isoflurane-anesthetized Sprague-Dawley rats underwent moderate (2.0 atm) fluid percussion traumatic brain injury followed by either normotension or hemorrhagic hypotension. Animals were killed 24 h after injury. Frozen brain sections were double stained with 1% cresyl violet and 0.001% Fluoro-Jade. RNA from 10 Fluoro-Jade-positive neurons and 10 Fluoro-Jade-negative neurons, obtained from the hippocampal CA1, CA3, and dentate gyrus subfields using laser capture microdissection, was linearly amplified and analyzed by quantitative ribonuclease protection assay for nine neuroprotective and apoptosis-related genes. RESULTS: In injured CA3 neurons, expression of the neuroprotective genes glutathione peroxidase 1, heme oxygenase 1, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor was significantly decreased compared with that of adjacent uninjured neurons. Superimposition of hemorrhagic hypotension was associated with down-regulation of neuroprotective genes in both injured and uninjured neurons of all subregions. Expression of apoptosis-related genes did not vary between injured and uninjured neurons, with or without superimposed hemorrhage. CONCLUSIONS: The authors show, in the first direct comparison of messenger RNA levels in injured and uninjured hippocampal neurons, that injured neurons express lower levels of neuroprotective genes than adjacent uninjured neurons.