Efficacy of an oral suspension containing xyloglucan and pea proteins on a murine model of gastroesophageal reflux disease.

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is the most common foregut disease, affecting about 20% of the adult population. Esophageal epithelial barrier plays a fundamental role in the pathophysiology of GERD; however, pharmacological therapies mainly aim to reduce the acidity of the gastroesophageal environment rather than to protect esophageal tissue integrity. This study aims to evaluate the efficacy of an oral solution containing xyloglucan and pea proteins (XP) in reestablishing gastroesophageal tissue integrity and biochemical markers. To induce GERD, C57BL/6 mice were alternatively overfed and fasted for 56 days and then treated with XP, sodium alginate, omeprazole, or omeprazole+XP twice daily for 7 days. Gastric pain and inflammatory markers were evaluated after 3 and 7 days of treatment. After sacrifice, the esophagi and stomachs were surgically removed for macroscopic and histological examination. Gastric pain was significantly reduced at days 3 and 7 by XP, omeprazole, and omeprazole+XP, while alginates were ineffective at day 3. XP was able to diminish gastric macroscopic damage and demonstrated the same efficacy as omeprazole in reducing esophageal damage. XP significantly reduced histological damage, with an efficacy comparable to that of omeprazole, but superior to alginates. Inflammatory markers were significantly reduced by XP, with superior efficacy compared with alginates at day 7. Interestingly, XP was also able to significantly increase gastric pH. This study demonstrated that XP restored gastric homeostasis, improved esophageal integrity, and decreased inflammation and pain with a similar efficacy to omeprazole and greater than alginates.

Protective Effect of Probiotics against Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infection of Human Corneal Epithelial Cells.

Probiotic therapy needs consideration as an alternative strategy to prevent and possibly treat corneal infection. This study aimed to assess the preventive effect of Lactobacillus reuteri and Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis on reducing the infection of human corneal epithelial (HCE) cells caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The probiotics' preventive effect against infection was evaluated in cell monolayers pretreated with each probiotic 1 h and 24 h prior to P. aeruginosa challenge followed by 1 h and 24 h of growth in combination. Cell adhesion, cytotoxicity, anti-inflammatory, and antinitrosative activities were evaluated. L. reuteri and B. longum adhered to HCE cells, preserved occludin tight junctions' integrity, and increased mucin production on a SkinEthicTM HCE model. Pretreatment with L. reuteri or B. longum significantly protected HCE cells from infection at 24 h, increasing cell viability at 110% (110.51 ± 5.15; p ≤ 0.05) and 137% (137.55 ± 11.97; p ≤ 0.05), respectively. Each probiotic showed anti-inflammatory and antinitrosative activities, reducing TNF-α level (p ≤ 0.001) and NOx amount (p ≤ 0.001) and reestablishing IL-10 level (p ≤ 0.001). In conclusion, this study demonstrated that L. reuteri and B. longum exert protective effects in the context of corneal infection caused by P. aeruginosa by restoring cell viability and modulating inflammatory cytokine release.

DKK3 Expression in Glioblastoma: Correlations with Biomolecular Markers.

Glioblastoma is the most common malignant primary tumor of the CNS. The prognosis is dismal, with a median survival of 15 months. Surgical treatment followed by adjuvant therapies such as radiotherapy and chemotherapy characterize the classical strategy. The WNT pathway plays a key role in cellular proliferation, differentiation, and invasion. The DKK3 protein, capable of acting as a tumor suppressor, also appears to be able to modulate the WNT pathway. We performed, in a series of 40 patients, immunohistochemical and Western blot evaluations of DKK3 to better understand how the expression of this protein can influence clinical behavior. We used a statistical analysis, with correlations between the expression of DKK3 and overall survival, age, sex, Ki-67, p53, and MGMT and IDH status. We also correlated our data with information included in the cBioPortal database. In our analyses, DKK3 expression, in both immunohistochemistry and Western blot analyses, was reduced or absent in many cases, showing downregulation. To date, no clinical study exists in the literature that reports a potential correlation between IDH and MGMT status and the WNT pathway through the expression of DKK3. Modulation of this pathway through the expression of DKK3 could represent a new tailored therapeutic strategy in the treatment of glioblastoma.

Novel Findings on CCR1 Receptor in CNS Disorders: A Pathogenic Marker Useful in Controlling Neuroimmune and Neuroinflammatory Mechanisms in Parkinson's Disease.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is recognized as the second most common neurodegenerative disease worldwide. Even if PD etiopathogenesis is not yet fully understood, in recent years, it has been advanced that a chronic state of inflammation could play a decisive role in the development of this pathology, establishing the close link between PD and neuroinflammation. In the broad panorama of inflammation and its several signaling pathways, the C-C chemokine receptor type 1 (CCR1) could play a key pathogenic role in PD progression, and could constitute a valuable target for the development of innovative anti-PD therapies. In this study, we probed the neuroprotective properties of the CCR1 antagonist BX471 compound in a mouse model of MPTP-induced nigrostriatal degeneration. BX471 treatments were performed intraperitoneally at a dose of 3 mg/kg, 10 mg/kg, and 30 mg/kg, starting 24 h after the last injection of MPTP and continuing for 7 days. From our data, BX471 treatment strongly blocked CCR1 and, as a result, decreased PD features, also reducing the neuroinflammatory state by regulating glial activation, NF-κB pathway, proinflammatory enzymes, and cytokines overexpression. Moreover, we showed that BX471's antagonistic action on CCR1 reduced the infiltration of immune cells, including mast cells and lymphocyte T activation. In addition, biochemical analyses carried out on serum revealed a considerable increase in circulating levels of CCR1 following MPTP-induced PD. In light of these findings, CCR1 could represent a useful pathological marker of PD, and its targeting could be a worthy candidate for the future development of new immunotherapies against PD.

Neuroprotective effects of GSK-343 in an in vivo model of MPTP-induced nigrostriatal degeneration.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by the degeneration of dopaminergic nigrostriatal neurons, which causes disabling motor disorders. Scientific findings support the role of epigenetics mechanism in the development and progression of many neurodegenerative diseases, including PD. In this field, some studies highlighted an upregulation of Enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) in the brains of PD patients, indicating the possible pathogenic role of this methyltransferase in PD. The aim of this study was to evaluate the neuroprotective effects of GSK-343, an EZH2 inhibitor, in an in vivo model of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced dopaminergic degeneration. Specifically, nigrostriatal degeneration was induced by MPTP intraperitoneal injection. GSK-343 was administered intraperitoneally daily at doses of 1 mg/kg, 5 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg, mice were killed 7 days after MPTP injection. Our results demonstrated that GSK-343 treatment significantly improved behavioral deficits and reduced the alteration of PD hallmarks. Furthermore, GSK-343 administration significantly attenuated the neuroinflammatory state through the modulation of canonical and non-canonical NF-κB/IκBα pathway as well as the cytokines expression and glia activation, also reducing the apoptosis process. In conclusion, the obtained results provide further evidence that epigenetic mechanisms play a pathogenic role in PD demonstrating that the inhibition of EZH2, mediated by GSK-343, could be considered a valuable pharmacological strategy for PD.

Prolyl oligopeptidase inhibition ameliorates experimental pulmonary fibrosis both in vivo and in vitro.

BACKGROUND: Pulmonary fibrosis is a progressive disease characterized by lung remodeling due to excessive deposition of extracellular matrix. Although the etiology remains unknown, aberrant angiogenesis and inflammation play an important role in the development of this pathology. In this context, recent scientific research has identified new molecules involved in angiogenesis and inflammation, such as the prolyl oligopeptidase (PREP), a proteolytic enzyme belonging to the serine protease family, linked to the pathology of many lung diseases such as pulmonary fibrosis. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a selective inhibitor of PREP, known as KYP-2047, in an in vitro and in an in vivo model of pulmonary fibrosis. METHODS: The in vitro model was performed using human alveolar A549 cells. Cells were exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) 10 µg/ml and then, cells were treated with KYP-2047 at the concentrations of 1 µM, 10 µM and 50 µM. Cell viability was evaluated by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium (MTT) bromide colorimetric assay, while inflammatory protein expression was assessed by western blots analysis. The in vivo model was induced in mice by intra-tracheal administration of bleomycin (1 mg/kg) and then treated intraperitoneally with KYP-2047 at doses of 1, 2.5 and 5 mg/kg once daily for 12 days and then mice were sacrificed, and lung tissues were collected for analyses. RESULTS: The in vitro results demonstrated that KYP-2047 preserved cell viability, reduced inflammatory process by decreasing IL-18 and TNF-α, and modulated lipid peroxidation as well as nitrosative stress. The in vivo pulmonary fibrosis has demonstrated that KYP-2047 was able to restore histological alterations reducing lung injury. Our data demonstrated that KYP-2047 significantly reduced angiogenesis process and the fibrotic damage modulating the expression of fibrotic markers. Furthermore, KYP-2047 treatment modulated the IκBα/NF-κB pathway and reduced the expression of related pro-inflammatory enzymes and cytokines. Moreover, KYP-2047 was able to modulate the JAK2/STAT3 pathway, highly involved in pulmonary fibrosis. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, this study demonstrated the involvement of PREP in the pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis and that its inhibition by KYP-2047 has a protective role in lung injury induced by BLM, suggesting PREP as a potential target therapy for pulmonary fibrosis. These results speculate the potential protective mechanism of KYP-2047 through the modulation of JAK2/STAT3 and NF-κB pathways.

Trehalose-Carnosine Prevents the Effects of Spinal Cord Injury Through Regulating Acute Inflammation and Zinc(II) Ion Homeostasis.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) leads to long-term and permanent motor dysfunctions, and nervous system abnormalities. Injury to the spinal cord triggers a signaling cascade that results in activation of the inflammatory cascade, apoptosis, and Zn(II) ion homeostasis. Trehalose (Tre), a nonreducing disaccharide, and L-carnosine (Car), (ß-alanyl-L-histidine), one of the endogenous histidine dipeptides have been recognized to suppress early inflammatory effects, oxidative stress and to possess neuroprotective effects. We report on the effects of the conjugation of Tre with Car (Tre-car) in reducing inflammation in in vitro and in vivo models. The in vitro study was performed using rat pheochromocytoma cells (PC12 cell line). After 24 h, Tre-car, Car, Tre, and Tre + Car mixture treatments, cells were collected and used to investigate Zn2+ homeostasis. The in vivo model of SCI was induced by extradural compression of the spinal cord at the T6-T8 levels. After treatments with Tre, Car and Tre-Car conjugate 1 and 6 h after SCI, spinal cord tissue was collected for analysis. In vitro results demonstrated the ionophore effect and chelating features of L-carnosine and its conjugate. In vivo, the Tre-car conjugate treatment counteracted the activation of the early inflammatory cascade, oxidative stress and apoptosis after SCI. The Tre-car conjugate stimulated neurotrophic factors release, and influenced Zn2+ homeostasis. We demonstrated that Tre-car, Tre and Car treatments improved tissue recovery after SCI. Tre-car decreased proinflammatory, oxidative stress mediators release, upregulated neurotrophic factors and restored Zn2+ homeostasis, suggesting that Tre-car may represent a promising therapeutic agent for counteracting the consequences of SCI.

The Role of Neuro-Inflammation and Innate Immunity in Pathophysiology of Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors.

Inflammation and innate immune system play a central role in cancers, including those affecting the central nervous system (CNS). Currently, classification of neoplasms, especially regarding gliomas, is established on molecular mutations in isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) genes and the presence of co-deletion 1p/19q. Treatment, in most of brain and spinal cord tumors, is centered on surgery, radiotherapy and pharmacological approaches with chemotherapeutic agents. However, the results of the treatments, after several decades, are not completely satisfactory. Cytokines and angiogenic factors are closely linked to the brain cancer behavior. Moreover, recent studies suggest a link between inflammation and tumorigenesis, underlying the complex nature of this topic, especially the anti- and pro-tumoral activities of inflammation and the two-way interactions between immune and tumor cells. The current understanding of the mechanisms by which CNS cancer cells modulate the immune system, especially how bi-directional communications between immune cells and tumor cells create an immunosuppressed microenvironment, gives important information about the promotion of tumor survival and growth. Here, we have briefly reviewed the current literature on this topic, focusing on the possible role of inflammation and innate immunity involved in the origin and in the development of CNS tumors.

The Prognostic Value of Pentraxin-3 in COVID-19 Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Mortality Incidence.

Over the last three years, humanity has been facing one of the most serious health emergencies due to the global spread of Coronavirus disease (COVID-19). In this scenario, the research of reliable biomarkers of mortality from COVID-19 represents a primary objective. Pentraxin 3 (PTX3), a highly conserved protein of innate immunity, seems to be associated with a worse outcome of the disease. Based on the above, this systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the prognostic potential of PTX3 in COVID-19 disease. We included 12 clinical studies evaluating PTX3 in COVID-19 patients. From our research, we found increased PTX3 levels compared to healthy subjects, and notably, PTX3 was even more augmented in severe COVID-19 rather than non-severe cases. Moreover, we performed a meta-analysis to establish if there were differences between ICU and non-ICU COVID-19 patients in PTX3-related death. We combined 5 studies for a total of 543 ICU vs. 515 non-ICU patients. We found high significative PTX3-related death in ICU COVID-19 hospitalized individuals (184 out of 543) compared to non-ICU (37 out of 515), with an overall effect OR: 11.30 [2.00, 63.73]; p = 0.006. In conclusion, we probed PTX3 as a reliable marker of poor outcomes after COVID-19 infection as well as a predictor of hospitalized patients' stratification.

bFGF-like Activity Supported Tissue Regeneration, Modulated Neuroinflammation, and Rebalanced Ca2+ Homeostasis following Spinal Cord Injury.

A spinal cord injury (SCI) is a well-defined debilitating traumatic event to the spinal cord that usually triggers permanent changes in motor, sensory, and autonomic functions. Injured tissue becomes susceptible to secondary mechanisms caused by SCIs, which include pro-inflammatory cytokine release, the activation of astrocytes and microglia, and increased neuronal sensibility. As a consequence, the production of factors such as GFAP, IBA-1, TNF-α, IL-1ß, IFN-γ, and S100-ß slow down or inhibit central nervous system (CNS) regeneration. In this regard, a thorough understanding of the mechanisms regulating the CNS, and specifically SCI, is essential for the development of new therapeutic strategies. It has been demonstrated that basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) was successful in the modulation of neurotrophic activity, also promoting neurite survival and tissue repair, thus resulting in the valuable care of CNS disorders. However, bFGF therapeutic use is limited due to the undesirable effects developed following its administration. Therefore, the synthetic compound mimetic of bFGF, SUN11602 (with chemical name 4-[[4-[[2-[(4-Amino-2,3,5,6-tetramethylphenyl)amino]acetyl]methylamino]-1-piperidinyl]methyl]benzamide), has been reported to show neuroprotective activities similar to those of bFGF, also demonstrating a good pharmacokinetic profile. Here, we aimed to investigate the neuroprotective activity of this bFGF-like compound in modulating tissue regeneration, neuroinflammation, and Ca2+ overload by using a subacute mouse model of SCI. SUN11602 (1, 2.5, and 5 mg/kg) was administered orally to mice for 72 h daily following the in vivo model of SCI, which was generated by the extradural compression of the spinal cord. The data obtained demonstrated that SUN11602 treatment considerably decreased motor alteration and diminished the neuroinflammatory state through the regulation of glial activation, the NF-κB pathway, and kinases. Additionally, by controlling Ca2+-binding proteins and restoring neurotrophin expression, we showed that SUN11602 therapy restored the equilibrium of the neuronal circuit. Because of these findings, bFGF-like compounds may be an effective tool for reducing inflammation in SCI patients while enhancing their quality of life.

Evaluation of the Efficacy of Xyloglucan, Pea Protein and Opuntia ficus-indica Extract in a Preclinical Model of Psoriasis.

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disease characterized by epidermal gene abnormalities, epidermal barrier defects and inflammation. Corticosteroids are considered to be standard treatments, but often come with side effects and lose efficacy with long-term use. Alternative treatments targeting the epidermal barrier defect are needed to manage the disease. Film-forming substances such as xyloglucan, pea protein and Opuntia ficus-indica extract (XPO) have generated interest for their ability to restore skin barrier integrity and may pose an alternative approach to disease management. Thus, the aim of this two-part study was to evaluate the barrier-protective properties of a topical cream containing XPO on the membrane permeability of keratinocytes exposed to inflammatory conditions and compare its efficacy to dexamethasone (DXM) in an in vivo model of psoriasis-like dermatitis. XPO treatment significantly reduced S. aureus adhesion, subsequent skin invasion and restored epithelial barrier function in keratinocytes. Furthermore, the treatment restored the integrity of keratinocytes, reducing tissue damage. In mice with psoriasis-like dermatitis, XPO significantly reduced erythema, inflammatory markers and epidermal thickening with a superior efficacy to dexamethasone. Given the promising results, XPO may represent a novel steroid-sparing therapeutic for epidermal-related diseases such as psoriasis, thanks to its ability to preserve skin barrier function and integrity.

The Transcription Factor Nrf2 Mediates the Effects of Antrodia camphorata Extract on Neuropathological Changes in a Mouse Model of Parkinson's Disease.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a disorder that is characterized by progressive and selective neuronal injury and cell death. Recent studies have provided accumulating evidence for a significant role of the immune system and neuroinflammation in PD pathogenesis. On this basis, many scientific articles have highlighted the anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties of Antrodia camphorata (AC), an edible fungus containing various bioactive compounds. This study aimed to evaluate the inhibitory effect of AC administration on neuroinflammation and oxidative stress in a murine model of MPTP-induced dopaminergic degeneration. AC (10, 30, 100 mg/kg) was administered daily by oral gavage starting 24 h after the first administration of MPTP, and mice were sacrificed 7 days after MPTP induction. In this study, treatment with AC significantly reduced the alteration of PD hallmarks, increasing tyrosine hydroxylase expression and reducing the number of alpha-synuclein-positive neurons. In addition, AC treatment restored the myelination process of neurons associated with PD and attenuated the neuroinflammatory state. Furthermore, our study demonstrated that AC was able to reduce the oxidative stress induced by MPTP injection. In conclusion, this study highlighted that AC could be a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders such as PD.

Therapeutic Potential of Dimethyl Fumarate in Counteract Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma Progression by Modulating Apoptosis, Oxidative Stress and Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition.

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a common human tumor, that originates from buccal mucosa and the tongue, associated with a high mortality rate. Currently, the treatment for OSCC involves surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy; however, survival outcomes for OSCC patients remain poor. For this reason, it is necessary to investigate new therapeutic strategies to counteract the progression of OSCC. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the role of dimethyl fumarate (DMF) in modulation of OSCC progression, both in vitro and in an in vivo orthotopic xenograft model. In vitro results revealed that DMF was able to reduce the expression of anti-apoptotic factors as BCL-2 and increased the expression of pro-apoptotic factors as Bax, Caspase-3 and BID. DMF appears to be involved in the modulation of oxidative stress mediators, such as MnSOD and HO-1. Furthermore, DMF showed to reduce the migratory ability of tumor cells and to modulate the expression of markers of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), as N-cadherin and E-cadherin. The in vivo study confirmed the data obtained in vitro significantly decreasing tumor mass and also reducing oxidative stress and apoptosis. Therefore, based on these results, the use of DMF could be considered a promising strategy to counteract oral cancer progression.

SUN11602, a bFGF mimetic, modulated neuroinflammation, apoptosis and calcium-binding proteins in an in vivo model of MPTP-induced nigrostriatal degeneration.

BACKGROUND: Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most frequent neurodegenerative disease. PD etiopathogenesis is multifactorial and not yet fully known, however, the scientific world advised the establishment of neuroinflammation among the possible risk factors. In this field, basic fibroblast growth factor/fibroblast growth factor receptor-1 (bFGF/FGFR1) could be a promising way to treat CNS-mediated inflammation; unfortunately, the use of bFGF as therapeutic agent is limited by its side effects. The novel synthetic compound SUN11602 exhibited neuroprotective activities like bFGF. With this perspective, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of SUN11602 administration in a murine model of MPTP-induced dopaminergic degeneration. METHODS: Specifically, nigrostriatal degeneration was induced by intraperitoneal injection of MPTP (80 mg/kg). SUN11602 (1 mg/kg, 2.5 mg/kg, and 5 mg/kg) was administered daily by oral gavage starting from 24 h after the first administration of MPTP. Mice were killed 7 days after MPTP induction. RESULTS: The results obtained showed that SUN11602 administration significantly reduced the alteration of PD hallmarks, attenuating the neuroinflammatory state via modulation of glial activation, NF-κB pathway, and cytokine overexpression. Furthermore, we demonstrated that SUN11602 treatment rebalanced Ca2+ overload in neurons by regulating Ca2+-binding proteins while inhibiting the apoptotic cascade. CONCLUSION: Therefore, in the light of these findings, SUN11602 could be considered a valuable pharmacological strategy for PD.

Supplementation with SCFAs Re-Establishes Microbiota Composition and Attenuates Hyperalgesia and Pain in a Mouse Model of NTG-Induced Migraine.

Migraine is a common brain-disorder that affects 15% of the population. Converging evidence shows that migraine is associated with gastrointestinal disorders. However, the mechanisms underlying the interaction between the gut and brain in patients with migraine are not clear. In this study, we evaluated the role of the short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) as sodium propionate (SP) and sodium butyrate (SB) on microbiota profile and intestinal permeability in a mouse model of migraine induced by nitroglycerine (NTG). The mice were orally administered SB and SP at the dose of 10, 30 and 100 mg/kg, 5 min after NTG intraperitoneal injections. Behavioral tests were used to evaluate migraine-like pain. Histological and molecular analyses were performed on the intestine. The composition of the intestinal microbiota was extracted from frozen fecal samples and sequenced with an Illumina MiSeq System. Our results demonstrated that the SP and SB treatments attenuated hyperalgesia and pain following NTG injection. Moreover, SP and SB reduced histological damage in the intestine and restored intestinal permeability and the intestinal microbiota profile. These results provide corroborating evidence that SB and SP exert a protective effect on central sensitization induced by NTG through a modulation of intestinal microbiota, suggesting the potential application of SCFAs as novel supportive therapies for intestinal disfunction associated with migraine.

Efficacy of a Product Containing Xyloglucan and Pea Protein on Intestinal Barrier Function in a Partial Restraint Stress Animal Model.

Functional abdominal bloating and distension (FABD) are common and frequent symptoms in patients with pre-existing gastrointestinal (GI) disorders. FABD is characterized by recurrent abdominal fullness and bloating. The pathophysiology of FABD is still unclear. However, the plausible mechanisms involved are small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO), imbalance of gut microbiota, visceral hypersensitivity, intestinal permeability alteration, and disruption of intestinal barrier function. Thus, the creation of a barrier on the wall of the intestine could represent an alternative therapeutic strategy to prevent FABD. This study aimed to investigate the effect of two natural substances, Xyloglucan (XG) and Pea-protein (PP), known for their mucosal-protective properties, in an in vivo model of Partial restraint-stress (PRS). Our results showed that the pre-treatment with a product containing XG and PP in stressed-rats was able to reduce the number of abdominal contractions and visceral hypersensitivity. Moreover, XG and PP were able to reduce intestinal permeability alteration, restoring tight-junctions (TJs) expression and decreased the lactulose-mannitol ratio, a quantitative marker used to measure intestinal permeability, compared to PRS-group. In conclusion, the data obtained revealed that the product containing XG and PP was able to restore the normal intestinal-barrier function; therefore, it could be considered a therapeutic strategy to manage FABD.

The Biological Function of MicroRNAs in Bone Tumors.

Micro ribonucleic acids (miRNAs) are small endogenous noncoding RNAs molecules that regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally. A single miRNA is able to target hundreds of specific messenger RNA (mRNAs) by binding to the 3'-untranslated regions. miRNAs regulate different biological processes such as cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. Altered miRNA expression is certainly related to the development of the most common human diseases, including tumors. Osteosarcoma (OS), Ewing's Sarcoma (ES), and Chondrosarcoma (CS) are the most common primary bone tumors which affect mainly children and adolescents. A significant dysregulation of miRNA expression, in particular of mir-34, mir-21, mir-106, mir-143, and miR-100, has been revealed in OS, ES and CS. In this context, miRNAs can act as either tumor suppressor genes or oncogenes, contributing to the initiation and progression of bone tumors. The in-depth study of these small molecules can thus help to better understand their biological functions in bone tumors. Therefore, this review aims to examine the potential role of miRNAs in bone tumors, especially OS, ES and CS, and to suggest their possible use as potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of bone tumors and as biomarkers for early diagnosis.

GSK343, an Inhibitor of Enhancer of Zeste Homolog 2, Reduces Glioblastoma Progression through Inflammatory Process Modulation: Focus on Canonical and Non-Canonical NF-κB/IκBα Pathways.

Glioblastoma (GB) is a tumor of the central nervous system characterized by high proliferation and invasiveness. The standard treatment for GB includes radiotherapy and chemotherapy; however, new therapies are needed. Particular attention was given to the role of histone methyltransferase enhancer of zeste-homolog-2 (EZH2) in GB. Recently, several EZH2-inhibitors have been developed, particularly GSK343 is well-known to regulate apoptosis and autophagy processes; however, its abilities to modulate canonical/non-canonical NF-κB/IκBα pathways or an immune response in GB have not yet been investigated. Therefore, this study investigated for the first time the effect of GSK343 on canonical/non-canonical NF-κB/IκBα pathways and the immune response, by an in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo model of GB. In vitro results demonstrated that GSK343 treatments 1, 10 and 25 µM significantly reduced GB cell viability, showing the modulation of canonical/non-canonical NF-κB/IκBα pathway activation. In vivo GSK343 reduced subcutaneous tumor mass, regulating canonical/non-canonical NF-κB/IκBα pathway activation and the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), and superoxide dismutase (SOD). Ex vivo results confirmed the anti-proliferative effect of GSK343 and also demonstrated its ability to regulate immune response through CXCL9, CXCL10 and CXCL11 expression in GB. Thus, GSK343 could represent a therapeutic strategy to counteract GB progression, thanks to its ability to modulate canonical/non-canonical NF-κB/IκBα pathways and immune response.

Protein Kinase Inhibitors as a New Target for Immune System Modulation and Brain Cancer Management.

High-grade brain tumors are malignant tumors with poor survival and remain the most difficult tumors to treat. An important contributing factor to the development and progression of brain tumors is their ability to evade the immune system. Several immunotherapeutic strategies including vaccines and checkpoint inhibitors have been studied to improve the effectiveness of the immune system in destroying cancer cells. Recent studies have shown that kinase inhibitors, capable of inhibiting signal transduction cascades that affect cell proliferation, migration, and angiogenesis, have additional immunological effects. In this review, we explain the beneficial therapeutic effects of novel small-molecule kinase inhibitors and explore how, through different mechanisms, they increase the protective antitumor immune response in high-grade brain tumors.

The Pivotal Role of Protein Phosphatase 2A (PP2A) in Brain Tumors.

Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is a highly complex heterotrimeric Ser/Thr phosphatase that regulates many cellular processes. PP2A is dysregulated in several human diseases, including oncological pathology; interestingly, PP2A appears to be essential for controlling cell growth and may be involved in cancer development. The role of PP2A as a tumor suppressor has been extensively studied and reviewed. To leverage the potential clinical utility of combination PP2A inhibition and radiotherapy treatment, it is vital that novel highly specific PP2A inhibitors be developed. In this review, the existing literature on the role of PP2A in brain tumors, especially in gliomas and glioblastoma (GBM), was analyzed. Interestingly, the review focused on the role of PP2A inhibitors, focusing on CIP2A inhibition, as CIP2A participated in tumor cell growth by stimulating cell-renewal survival, cellular proliferation, evasion of senescence and inhibition of apoptosis. This review suggested CIP2A inhibition as a promising strategy in oncology target therapy.