An In Vivo Model of Human Macrophages in Metastatic Melanoma.

Despite recent therapeutic progress, advanced melanoma remains lethal for many patients. The composition of the immune tumor microenvironment (TME) has decisive impacts on therapy response and disease outcome, and high-dimensional analyses of patient samples reveal the heterogeneity of the immune TME. Macrophages infiltrate TMEs and generally associate with tumor progression, but the underlying mechanisms are incompletely understood. Because experimental systems are needed to elucidate the functional properties of these cells, we developed a humanized mouse model reconstituted with human immune cells and human melanoma. We used two strains of recipient mice, supporting or not supporting the development of human myeloid cells. We found that human myeloid cells favored metastatic spread of the primary tumor, thereby recapitulating the cancer-supportive role of macrophages. We next analyzed the transcriptome of human immune cells infiltrating tumors versus other tissues. This analysis identified a cluster of myeloid cells present in the TME, but not in other tissues, which do not correspond to canonical M2 cells. The transcriptome of these cells is characterized by high expression of glycolytic enzymes and multiple chemokines and by low expression of gene sets associated with inflammation and adaptive immunity. Compared with humanized mouse results, we found transcriptionally similar myeloid cells in patient-derived samples of melanoma and other cancer types. The humanized mouse model described here thus complements patient sample analyses, enabling further elucidation of fundamental principles in melanoma biology beyond M1/M2 macrophage polarization. The model can also support the development and evaluation of candidate antitumor therapies.

Clinical benefit of baseline imaging in Merkel cell carcinoma: Analysis of 584 patients.

BACKGROUND: Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) guidelines derive from melanoma and do not recommend baseline cross-sectional imaging for most patients. However, MCC is more likely to have metastasized at diagnosis than melanoma. OBJECTIVE: To determine how often baseline imaging identifies clinically occult MCC in patients with newly diagnosed disease with and without palpable nodal involvement. METHODS: Analysis of 584 patients with MCC with a cutaneous primary tumor, baseline imaging, no evident distant metastases, and sufficient staging data. RESULTS: Among 492 patients with clinically uninvolved regional nodes, 13.2% had disease upstaged by imaging (8.9% in regional nodes, 4.3% in distant sites). Among 92 patients with clinically involved regional nodes, 10.8% had disease upstaged to distant metastatic disease. Large (>4 cm) and small (<1 cm) primary tumors were both frequently upstaged (29.4% and 7.8%, respectively). Patients who underwent positron emission tomography-computed tomography more often had disease upstaged (16.8% of 352), than those with computed tomography alone (6.9% of 231; P = .0006). LIMITATIONS: This was a retrospective study. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with clinically node-negative disease, baseline imaging showed occult metastatic MCC at a higher rate than reported for melanoma (13.2% vs <1%). Although imaging is already recommended for patients with clinically node-positive MCC, these data suggest that baseline imaging is also indicated for patients with clinically node-negative MCC because upstaging is frequent and markedly alters management and prognosis.

Immunotherapy for skin cancer.

Among all tumor types, skin cancers are profoundly sensitive to immunotherapy. Indeed, the recently reported response rates for anti-PD-1 (anti-programmed-death 1) therapy for cutaneous malignant melanomas (MM), Merkel cell carcinomas, basal cell carcinomas, cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas and Kaposi sarcomas are all above 40%. This unique immunogenicity renders skin cancers as a paradigm for tumor-immune interactions and is driven by high mutational burdens, over-expressed tumor antigens and/or viral antigens. However, despite the clear demonstration of immunologic cure of skin cancer in some patients, most tumors develop either early (primary) or late (adaptive) resistance to immunotherapy. Resistance mechanisms are complex, and include contributions of tumor cell-intrinsic, T cell and microenvironment factors that have been recently further elucidated with the advent of single-cell technologies. This review will focus on the exciting progress with immunotherapy for skin cancers to date, and also our current understanding of the mechanisms of resistance to immunotherapy.

Advances in Immunotherapy for Metastatic Merkel Cell Carcinoma: A Clinician's Guide.

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a neuroendocrine skin cancer. The clinical impact of MCC has been increasing due to steadily rising incidence rates. Since 2001, more than 24,000 cases of MCC have been reported to the US National Program of Cancer Registries database, and in 2018, more than 2,500 incident cases are expected. MCC is highly aggressive, and one-third of patients will either present with or develop metastatic disease. Outcomes in patients with metastatic MCC have historically been poor; median time to progression with cytotoxic chemotherapy is only 3 months. MCC has long been appreciated to be immunogenic, with reports of spontaneous regression and responsiveness to immunotherapy. However, the mechanisms of this immunogenicity have only been understood over the past decade, with approximately 80% of cases in the United States associated with the Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) and expression of viral antigens (virus-positive [VP] MCC), and the remaining 20% of cases caused by UV radiation-induced damage leading to a high mutational burden and expression of neoantigens (virus-negative [VN] MCC). These insights have led to multiple successful trials of immunotherapies for MCC. PD-1 axis checkpoint inhibitors are now regarded as the preferred frontline systemic therapy in eligible patients (including both VP- and VN-MCC), with impressive frequency, durability, and depth of objective responses, which compare favorably to those of most solid tumors. This article reviews the safety and efficacy data from the key clinical trials of immune checkpoint inhibitors for metastatic MCC, and discusses several issues relevant to the clinical use of these agents. Finally, emerging immunotherapies for MCC, including cellular therapies and adjuvant systemic therapies, are reviewed.

Merkel cell carcinoma: Current US incidence and projected increases based on changing demographics.

BACKGROUND: Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) incidence rates are rising and strongly age-associated, relevant for an aging population. OBJECTIVE: Determine MCC incidence in the United States and project incident cases through the year 2025. METHODS: Registry data were obtained from the SEER-18 Database, containing 6600 MCC cases. Age- and sex-adjusted projections were generated using US census data. RESULTS: During 2000-2013, the number of reported solid cancer cases increased 15%, melanoma cases increased 57%, and MCC cases increased 95%. In 2013, the MCC incidence rate was 0.7 cases/100,000 person-years in the United States, corresponding to 2488 cases/year. MCC incidence increased exponentially with age, from 0.1 to 1.0 to 9.8 (per 100,000 person-years) among age groups 40-44 years, 60-64 years, and ≥85 years, respectively. Due to aging of the Baby Boomer generation, US MCC incident cases are predicted to climb to 2835 cases/year in 2020 and 3284 cases/year in 2025. LIMITATIONS: We assumed that the age-adjusted incidence rate would stabilize, and thus, the number of incident cases we projected might be an underestimate. CONCLUSION: An aging population is driving brisk increases in the number of new MCC cases in the United States. This growing impact combined with the rapidly evolving therapeutic landscape warrants expanded awareness of MCC diagnosis and management.

Viral oncoprotein antibodies as a marker for recurrence of Merkel cell carcinoma: A prospective validation study.

BACKGROUND: Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive skin cancer with a recurrence rate of >40%. Of the 2000 MCC cases per year in the United States, most are caused by the Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV). Antibodies to MCPyV oncoprotein (T-antigens) have been correlated with MCC tumor burden. The present study assesses the clinical utility of MCPyV-oncoprotein antibody titers for MCC prognostication and surveillance. METHODS: MCPyV-oncoprotein antibody detection was optimized in a clinical laboratory. A cohort of 219 patients with newly diagnosed MCC were followed prospectively (median follow-up, 1.9 years). Among the seropositive patients, antibody titer and disease status were serially tracked. RESULTS: Antibodies to MCPyV oncoproteins were rare among healthy individuals (1%) but were present in most patients with MCC (114 of 219 patients [52%]; P < .01). Seropositivity at diagnosis independently predicted decreased recurrence risk (hazard ratio, 0.58; P = .04) in multivariate analyses adjusted for age, sex, stage, and immunosuppression. After initial treatment, seropositive patients whose disease did not recur had rapidly falling titers that became negative by a median of 8.4 months. Among seropositive patients who underwent serial evaluation (71 patients; 282 time points), an increasing oncoprotein titer had a positive predictive value of 66% for clinically evident recurrence, whereas a decreasing titer had a negative predictive value of 97%. CONCLUSIONS: Determination of oncoprotein antibody titer assists in the clinical management of patients with newly diagnosed MCC by stratifying them into a higher risk seronegative cohort, in which radiologic imaging may play a more prominent role, and into a lower risk seropositive cohort, in which disease status can be tracked in part by oncoprotein antibody titer. Cancer 2017;123:1464-1474. © 2016 American Cancer Society.

Merkel cell polyomavirus large T antigen has growth-promoting and inhibitory activities.

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare and aggressive form of skin cancer. In at least 80% of all MCC, Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) DNA has undergone clonal integration into the host cell genome, and most tumors express the MCPyV large and small T antigens. In all cases of MCC reported to date, the integrated MCPyV genome has undergone mutations in the large T antigen. These mutations result in expression of a truncated large T antigen that retains the Rb binding or LXCXE motif but deletes the DNA binding and helicase domains. However, the transforming functions of full-length and truncated MCPyV large T antigen are unknown. We compared the transforming activities of full-length, truncated, and alternatively spliced 57kT forms of MCPyV large T antigen. MCPyV large T antigen could bind to Rb but was unable to bind to p53. Furthermore, MCPyV-truncated large T antigen was more effective than full-length and 57kT large T antigen in promoting the growth of human and mouse fibroblasts. In contrast, expression of the MCPyV large T antigen C-terminal 100 residues could inhibit the growth of several different cell types. These data imply that the deletion of the C terminus of MCPyV large T antigen found in MCC serves not only to disrupt viral replication but also results in the loss of a distinct growth-inhibitory function intrinsic to this region.

Relationships among primary tumor size, number of involved nodes, and survival for 8044 cases of Merkel cell carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: The effects of primary tumor size on nodal involvement and of number of involved nodes on survival have not, to our knowledge, been examined in a national database of Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). OBJECTIVE: We sought to analyze a retrospective cohort of patients with MCC from the largest US national database to assess the relationships between these clinical parameters and survival. METHODS: A total of 8044 MCC cases in the National Cancer Data Base were analyzed. RESULTS: There was a 14% risk of regional nodal involvement for 0.5-cm tumors that increased to 25% for 1.7-cm (median-sized) tumors and to more than 36% for tumors 6 cm or larger. The number of involved nodes was strongly predictive of survival (0 nodes, 76% 5-year relative survival; 1 node, 50%; 2 nodes, 47%; 3-5 nodes, 42%; and ≥6 nodes, 24%; P < .0001 for trend). Younger and/or male patients were more likely to undergo pathological nodal evaluation. LIMITATIONS: The National Cancer Data Base does not capture disease-specific survival. Hence, relative survival was calculated by comparing overall survival with age- and sex-matched US population data. CONCLUSION: Pathologic nodal evaluation should be considered even for patients with small primary MCC tumors. The number of involved nodes is strongly predictive of survival and may help improve prognostic accuracy and management.

Characterization of Immunosuppressive Myeloid Cells in Merkel Cell Carcinoma: Correlation with Resistance to PD-1 Pathway Blockade.

PURPOSE: Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a highly immunogenic skin cancer. Although essentially all MCCs are antigenic through viral antigens or high tumor mutation burden, MCC has a response rate of only approximately 50% to PD-(L)1 blockade suggesting barriers to T-cell responses. Prior studies of MCC immunobiology have focused on CD8 T-cell infiltration and their exhaustion status, while the role of innate immunity, particularly myeloid cells, in MCC remains underexplored. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We utilized single-cell transcriptomics from 9 patients with MCC and multiplex IHC staining of 54 patients' preimmunotherapy tumors, to identify myeloid cells and evaluate association with immunotherapy response. RESULTS: Single-cell transcriptomics identified tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) as the dominant myeloid component within MCC tumors. These TAMs express an immunosuppressive gene signature characteristic of monocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells and importantly express several targetable immune checkpoint molecules, including PD-L1 and LILRB receptors, that are not present on tumor cells. Analysis of 54 preimmunotherapy tumor samples showed that a subset of TAMs (CD163+, CD14+, S100A8+) selectively infiltrated tumors that had significant CD8 T cells. Indeed, higher TAM prevalence was associated with resistance to PD-1 blockade. While spatial interactions between TAMs and CD8 T cells were not associated with response, myeloid transcriptomic data showed evidence for cytokine signaling and expression of LILRB receptors, suggesting potential immunosuppressive mechanisms. CONCLUSIONS: This study further characterizes TAMs in MCC tumors and provides insights into their possible immunosuppressive mechanism. TAMs may reduce the likelihood of treatment response in MCC by counteracting the benefit of CD8 T-cell infiltration. See related commentary by Silk and Davar, p. 1076.

Incidence and Presenting Characteristics of Angiosarcoma in the US, 2001-2020.

Importance: Angiosarcoma is an aggressive vascular malignant neoplasm presenting either as a primary or secondary cancer, often arising after radiotherapy or in the context of preexisting lymphedema. Comprehensive data describing its incidence and presentation patterns are needed. Objective: To describe the incidence, presenting characteristics, and change over time of angiosarcoma in the US. Design, Setting, and Participants: This retrospective cross-sectional study used data from the US Cancer Statistics (USCS) National Program of Cancer Registries-Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Combined Database, which captures more than 99% of newly diagnosed cancers in the US. The study included all 19 289 patients in the US with a new diagnosis of angiosarcoma between 2001 and 2020 captured in the USCS database. Statistical analysis was performed from June to September 2023. Main Outcomes and Measures: Incidence of angiosarcoma, demographics of patients with angiosarcoma, and extent of disease at presentation. Results: The study included 19 289 patients (median age, 71 years [IQR, 59-80 years]; 10 506 women [54.5%]) with a new diagnosis of angiosarcoma. The US incidence of angiosarcoma doubled between 2001 (657 cases) and 2019 (1312 cases), reflecting both an increase in the adjusted incidence rate of 1.6% per year (P = .001), to 3.3 cases per 1 000 000 person-years (95% CI, 3.1-3.5 cases per 1 000 000 person-years), and an increase in the population at risk. In 2020, the reported incidence rate (3.0 cases per 1 000 000 person-years) and cases of angiosarcoma (n = 1159) were modestly lower than in 2019. Overall, 72.3% of cases of angiosarcoma (n = 13 955) were cutaneous, subcutaneous, or breast angiosarcomas; 24.4% were visceral (n = 4701); and 3.3% were located in unknown or rare primary sites (n = 633). Secondary breast and chest wall angiosarcomas among women represented the largest contribution to increasing incidence. Among breast angiosarcomas, 99.2% (2684 of 2705) were in women and 71.9% (1944 of 2705) were secondary. A total of 80.4% of chest wall or thorax cases among women (1861 of 2316) were secondary vs 26.5% among men (112 of 422), and 63.9% of upper extremity cases among women (205 of 321) were secondary vs 26.8% (56 of 209) among men (P = .001). Rates of secondary angiosarcoma in the abdomen and lower extremities were similar between men and women. The incidence rate of visceral angiosarcoma was also found to be increasing (1.5% per year; P = .001). Conclusions and Relevance: This cross-sectional study describes angiosarcoma presentation patterns and incidence rates in the US over a 20-year period and shows that the number of cases in men and women increased, with the greatest increase among women with secondary angiosarcoma of the chest, breast, and upper extremity. These data increase awareness of a rare but highly morbid disease and highlight the need for improved early detection of angiosarcoma among patients at high risk, such as women with a history of breast cancer.

Tumor Regression Following Engineered Polyomavirus-Specific T Cell Therapy in Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor-Refractory Merkel Cell Carcinoma.

Although immune check-point inhibitors (CPIs) revolutionized treatment of Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), patients with CPI-refractory MCC lack effective therapy. More than 80% of MCC express T-antigens encoded by Merkel cell polyomavirus, which is an ideal target for T-cell receptor (TCR)-based immunotherapy. However, MCC often repress HLA expression, requiring additional strategies to reverse the downregulation for allowing T cells to recognize their targets. We identified TCRMCC1 that recognizes a T-antigen epitope restricted to human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A*02:01. Seven CPI-refractory metastatic MCC patients received CD4 and CD8 T cells transduced with TCRMCC1 (TTCR-MCC1) preceded either by lymphodepleting chemotherapy or an HLA-upregulating regimen (single-fraction radiation therapy (SFRT) or systemic interferon gamma (IFNγ)) with concurrent avelumab. Two patients who received preceding SFRT and IFNγ respectively experienced tumor regression. One experienced regression of 13/14 subcutaneous lesions with 1 'escape' lesion and the other had delayed tumor regression in all lesions after initial progression. Although TTCR-MCC1 cells with an activated phenotype infiltrated tumors including the 'escape' lesion, all progressing lesions transcriptionally lacked HLA expression. While SFRT/IFNγ did not immediately upregulate tumor HLA expression, a secondary endogenous antigen-specific T cell infiltrate was detected in one of the regressing tumors and associated with HLA upregulation, indicating in situ immune responses have the potential to reverse HLA downregulation. Indeed, supplying a strong co-stimulatory signal via a CD200R-CD28 switch receptor allows TTCR-MCC1 cells to control HLA-downregulated MCC cells in a xenograft mouse model, upregulating HLA expression. Our results demonstrate the potential of TCR gene therapy for metastatic MCC and propose a next strategy for overcoming epigenetic downregulation of HLA in MCC.

Incidence, demographics, and survival of malignant hemangioendothelioma in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Malignant hemangioendothelioma is an endothelial cancer with heterogeneous clinical behavior that can range from indolent to aggressive, of which the majority are epithelioid (EHE). Its incidence and demographics have not been previously well defined in a large cohort. METHODS: This retrospective analysis used the US Cancer Statistics National Program of Cancer Registries - Surveillance Epidemiology End Results (SEER) combined database to identify patients in the US newly diagnosed with hemangioendothelioma between the years of 2001 and 2017 (n = 1986). Survival analyses were performed on a subset of patients within the SEER-18 database with survival information available (n = 417). Outcomes included incidence, demographics of patients newly diagnosed with hemangioendothelioma, extent of disease at presentation, and overall survival. RESULTS: The incidence of hemangioendothelioma in the US is 0.4 cases per million person-years. Although cases rose to 122 newly diagnosed in the year 2017 (90 EHE, 32 other hemangioendothelioma), incidence rates were stable. Skin and connective tissues were the most common presenting sites (33.4%), followed by liver (24.5%), lung (17.6%), and bone (12.5%). Median age at diagnosis was 55 years; 27.2% of patients were pediatric, adolescent, or young adult (<40 years). At presentation, 36.4% of patients had localized disease; 21.6% presented with regional and 41.7% with distant metastases. Observed survival at 3 years was 79.7%, 70.7%, and 46.0% for patients presenting with local, regional, and distant disease and most deaths occurred within the first 2 years. CONCLUSIONS: Malignant hemangioendothelioma is ultra-rare but meaningfully impacts affected patients. These data may provide benchmarks for comparison of new approaches to hemangioendothelioma therapy and highlight poor survival outcomes.

Secondary Breast Angiosarcoma After a Primary Diagnosis of Breast Cancer: A Retrospective Analysis of the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Database.

OBJECTIVES: Angiosarcoma is a rare complication of breast-conserving therapy. This study evaluated the change in incidence between 1992 and 2016 of secondary breast angiosarcoma (SBA) in patients with a history of breast cancer and the impact of management strategies for the original breast carcinoma on angiosarcoma treatment. METHODS: Breast cancer and angiosarcoma cases were abstracted from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Result (SEER) database. SBAs were defined as angiosarcomas located in the breast occurring after a prior breast cancer diagnosis. Primary breast angiosarcomas (PBAs) were defined as an angiosarcoma diagnosis listed as "one primary only." Incidence rates were estimated using a proportion of the US total population. Survival was analyzed by the Kaplan-Meier method, and Cox proportional hazard models were used to assess the association of clinicopathologic characteristics on overall survival. RESULTS: Between 1992 and 2016, 193 cases of SBA were reported in the SEER dataset in patients with a prior history of breast cancer. The incidence of breast angiosarcoma in patients with a prior diagnosis of breast cancer increased 3-fold from about 10 cases per 100,000 person-years to about 30 cases per 100,000 person-years over this same period ( P =0.0037). For treatment of SBA (n=193), almost all (95%) had surgery. Nine percent received radiation (compared with 35% of patients with PBA, P <0.001) and 23% received chemotherapy (vs. 45% for PBA, P =0.11). CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrate an increasing incidence of SBA over the study period. These data can help inform shared decision-making for optimal management of locoregional breast cancer and raise awareness of secondary angiosarcoma.

Recurrence and Mortality Risk of Merkel Cell Carcinoma by Cancer Stage and Time From Diagnosis.

IMPORTANCE: Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) often behaves aggressively; however, disease-recurrence data are not captured in national databases, and it is unclear what proportion of patients with MCC experience a recurrence (estimates vary from 27%-77%). Stage-specific recurrence data that includes time from diagnosis would provide more precise prognostic information and contribute to risk-appropriate clinical surveillance. OBJECTIVE: To estimate risk of stage-specific MCC recurrence and mortality over time since diagnosis. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: This prospective cohort study included 618 patients with MCC who were prospectively enrolled in a Seattle-based data repository between 2003 and 2019. Of these patients, 223 experienced a recurrence of MCC. Data analysis was performed July 2019 to November 2021. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Stage-specific recurrence and survival, as well as cumulative incidence and Kaplan-Meier analyses. RESULTS: Among the 618 patients included in the analysis (median [range] age, 69 [11-98] years; 227 [37%] female), the 5-year recurrence rate for MCC was 40%. Risk of recurrence in the first year was high (11% for patients with pathologic stage I, 33% for pathologic stage IIA/IIB, 30% for pathologic stage IIIA, 45% for pathologic stage IIIB, and 58% for pathologic stage IV), with 95% of recurrences occurring within the first 3 years. Median follow-up among living patients was 4.3 years. Beyond stage, 4 factors were associated with increased recurrence risk in univariable analyses: immunosuppression (hazard ratio [HR], 2.4; 95% CI, 1.7-3.3; P < .001), male sex (HR, 1.9; 95% CI, 1.4-2.5; P < .001), known primary lesion among patients with clinically detectable nodal disease (HR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.4-4.0; P = .001), and older age (HR, 1.1; 95% CI, 1.0-1.3; P = .06 for each 10-year increase). Among 187 deaths in the cohort, 121 (65%) were due to MCC. The MCC-specific survival rate was strongly stage dependent (95% at 5 years for patients with pathologic stage I vs 41% for pathologic stage IV). Among patients presenting with stage I to II MCC, a local recurrence (17 arising within/adjacent to the primary tumor scar) did not appreciably diminish survival compared with patients who had no recurrence (85% vs 88% MCC-specific survival at 5 years). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: In this cohort study, the MCC recurrence rate (approximately 40%) was notably different than that reported for invasive melanoma (approximately 19%), squamous cell carcinoma (approximately 5%-9%), or basal cell carcinoma (approximately 1%-2%) following definitive therapy. Because more than 90% of MCC recurrences arise within 3 years, it is appropriate to adjust surveillance intensity accordingly. Stage- and time-specific recurrence data can assist in appropriately focusing surveillance resources on patients and time intervals in which recurrence risk is highest.

Targeting an alternate Wilms' tumor antigen 1 peptide bypasses immunoproteasome dependency.

Designing effective antileukemic immunotherapy will require understanding mechanisms underlying tumor control or resistance. Here, we report a mechanism of escape from immunologic targeting in an acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patient, who relapsed 1 year after immunotherapy with engineered T cells expressing a human leukocyte antigen A*02 (HLA-A2)-restricted T cell receptor (TCR) specific for a Wilms' tumor antigen 1 epitope, WT1126-134 (TTCR-C4). Resistance occurred despite persistence of functional therapeutic T cells and continuous expression of WT1 and HLA-A2 by the patient's AML cells. Analysis of the recurrent AML revealed expression of the standard proteasome, but limited expression of the immunoproteasome, specifically the beta subunit 1i (ß1i), which is required for presentation of WT1126-134. An analysis of a second patient treated with TTCR-C4 demonstrated specific loss of AML cells coexpressing ß1i and WT1. To determine whether the WT1 protein continued to be processed and presented in the absence of immunoproteasome processing, we identified and tested a TCR targeting an alternative, HLA-A2-restricted WT137-45 epitope that was generated by immunoproteasome-deficient cells, including WT1-expressing solid tumor lines. T cells expressing this TCR (TTCR37-45) killed the first patients' relapsed AML resistant to WT1126-134 targeting, as well as other primary AML, in vitro. TTCR37-45 controlled solid tumor lines lacking immunoproteasome subunits both in vitro and in an NSG mouse model. As proteasome composition can vary in AML, defining and preferentially targeting these proteasome-independent epitopes may maximize therapeutic efficacy and potentially circumvent AML immune evasion by proteasome-related immunoediting.

Asymmetric lateral distribution of melanoma and Merkel cell carcinoma in the United States.

BACKGROUND: A recent report suggested a trend toward more ultraviolet-linked skin cancers arising on the left rather than the right side of the body in the United States. OBJECTIVE: We sought to test whether the reported incidences of two ultraviolet-linked skin cancers, malignant melanoma (MM) and Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), are statistically significantly greater on the left than the right in the United States. METHODS: MMs (n = 82,587) and MCCs (n = 2384) occurring on the left or right side of the face, arm, or leg that were reported in the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results registry between 1986 and 2006 were included for analysis. RESULTS: MM and MCC were significantly more likely to present on the left than the right (P < .01 for both MM and MCC). In all, 53% of arm melanomas, 51% of facial melanomas, and 52% of leg melanomas presented on the left. A total of 55% of arm MCCs and 52% of facial MCCs presented on the left, whereas leg MCCs were equally distributed. LIMITATIONS: National registry data did not provide information regarding sun exposure or driving habits. No equivalent registry data were available for basal or squamous cell carcinoma. CONCLUSIONS: Both melanoma and MCC are significantly more likely to arise on the left than the right, and this effect was most prominent on the arm. Driver-side automobile ultraviolet exposure (approximately 5-fold stronger on the left than right arm) is a likely contributing factor. It may be prudent to remind individuals prone to skin cancer to take appropriate sun precautions when driving in an automobile.

Quality Is King: Fundamental Insights into Tumor Antigenicity from Virus-Associated Merkel Cell Carcinoma.

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare skin malignancy that is a paradigm cancer for solid tumor immunotherapy. MCCs associated with Merkel cell polyomavirus (virus-positive MCC [VP-MCC]) or chronic UV exposure (virus-negative MCC [VN-MCC]) are anti-PD(L)1 responsive, despite VP-MCC's low mutational burden. This suggests that antigen quality, not merely mutation quantity, dictates immunotherapy responsiveness, and cell-based therapies targeting optimal antigens may be effective. Despite VP-MCC's antigenic homogeneity, diverse T-cell infiltration patterns are observed, implying microenvironment plasticity and multifactorial contributions to immune recognition. Moreover, VP-MCC exemplifies how antitumor adaptive immunity can provide tumor burden biomarkers for early detection and disease monitoring.

Pathologic nodal evaluation improves prognostic accuracy in Merkel cell carcinoma: analysis of 5823 cases as the basis of the first consensus staging system.

BACKGROUND: The management of Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) has been complicated by a lack of detailed prognostic data and by the presence of conflicting staging systems. OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine the prognostic significance of tumor size, clinical versus pathologic nodal evaluation, and extent of disease at presentation and thereby derive the first consensus staging/prognostic system for MCC. METHODS: A total of 5823 prospectively enrolled MCC cases from the National Cancer Data Base had follow-up data (median 64 months) and were used for prognostic analyses. RESULTS: At 5 years, overall survival was 40% and relative survival (compared with age- and sex-matched population data) was 54%. Among all MCC cases, 66% presented with local, 27% with nodal, and 7% with distant metastatic disease. For cases presenting with local disease only, smaller tumor size was associated with better survival (stage I, ≤2 cm, 66% relative survival at 5 years; stage II, >2 cm, 51%; P < .0001). Patients with clinically local-only disease and pathologically proven negative nodes had better outcome (76% at 5 years) than those who only underwent clinical nodal evaluation (59%, P < .0001). LIMITATIONS: The National Cancer Data Base does not capture disease-specific survival. Overall survival for patients with MCC was therefore used to calculate relative survival based on matched population data. CONCLUSION: Although the majority (68%) of patients with MCC in this nationwide cohort did not undergo pathologic nodal evaluation, this procedure may be indicated in many cases as it improves prognostic accuracy and has important treatment implications for those found to have microscopic nodal involvement.