Impact of indoor air pollution on DNA damage and chromosome stability: a systematic review.

Indoor air pollution is becoming a rising public health problem and is largely resulting from the burning of solid fuels and heating in households. Burning these fuels produces harmful compounds, such as particulate matter regarded as a major health risk, particularly affecting the onset and exacerbation of respiratory diseases. As exposure to polluted indoor air can cause DNA damage including DNA sd breaks as well as chromosomal damage, in this paper, we aim to provide an overview of the impact of indoor air pollution on DNA damage and genome stability by reviewing the scientific papers that have used the comet, micronucleus, and γ-H2AX assays. These methods are valuable tools in human biomonitoring and for studying the mechanisms of action of various pollutants, and are readily used for the assessment of primary DNA damage and genome instability induced by air pollutants by measuring different aspects of DNA and chromosomal damage. Based on our search, in selected studies (in vitro, animal models, and human biomonitoring), we found generally higher levels of DNA strand breaks and chromosomal damage due to indoor air pollutants compared to matched control or unexposed groups. In summary, our systematic review reveals the importance of the comet, micronucleus, and γ-H2AX assays as sensitive tools for the evaluation of DNA and genome damaging potential of different indoor air pollutants. Additionally, research in this particular direction is warranted since little is still known about the level of indoor air pollution in households or public buildings and its impact on genetic material. Future studies should focus on research investigating the possible impact of indoor air pollutants in complex mixtures on the genome and relate pollutants to possible health outcomes.

New Insight into the Measurements of Particle-Bound Metals in the Urban and Remote Atmospheres of the Sarajevo Canton and Modeled Impacts of Particulate Air Pollution in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The Sarajevo Canton Winter Field Campaign 2018 (SAFICA) was a project that took place in winter 2017-2018 with an aim to characterize the chemical composition of aerosol in the Sarajevo Canton, Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), which has one of the worst air qualities in Europe. This paper presents the first characterization of the metals in PM10 (particulate matter aerodynamic diameters ≤10 µm) from continuous filter samples collected during an extended two-months winter period at the urban background Sarajevo and remote Ivan Sedlo sites. We report the results of 18 metals detected by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry (ETAAS). The average mass concentrations of metals were higher at the Sarajevo site than at Ivan Sedlo and ranged from 0.050 ng/m3 (Co) to 188 ng/m3 (Fe) and from 0.021 ng/m3 (Co) to 61.8 ng/m3 (Fe), respectively. The BenMAP-CE model was used for estimating the annual BiH health (50% decrease in PM2.5 would save 4760+ lives) and economic benefits (costs of $2.29B) of improving the air quality. Additionally, the integrated energy and health assessment with the ExternE model provided an initial estimate of the additional health cost of BiH's energy system.

Associating Air Pollution with Cytokinesis-Block Micronucleus Assay Parameters in Lymphocytes of the General Population in Zagreb (Croatia).

Air pollution is recognized as one of the most serious public health issues worldwide and was declared to be a leading environmental cause of cancer deaths. At the same time, the cytokinesis-block micronucleus (CBMN) assay serves as a cancer predictive method that is extensively used in human biomonitoring for populations exposed to environmental contamination. The objective of this cross-sectional study is two-fold: to evaluate genomic instability in a sample (N = 130) of healthy, general population residents from Zagreb (Croatia), chronically exposed to different levels of air pollution, and to relate them to air pollution levels in the period from 2011 to 2015. Measured frequencies of CBMN assay parameters were in agreement with the baseline data for the general population of Croatia. Air pollution exposure was based on four factors obtained from a factor analysis of all exposure data obtained for the examined period. Based on the statistical results, we did not observe a significant positive association between any of the CBMN assay parameters tested and measured air pollution parameters for designated time windows, except for benzo(a)pyrene (B[a]P) that showed significant negative association. Our results show that measured air pollution parameters are largely below the regulatory limits, except for B[a]P, and as such, they do not affect CBMN assay parameters' frequency. Nevertheless, as air pollution is identified as a major health threat, it is necessary to conduct prospective studies investigating the effect of air pollution on genome integrity and human health.

Air pollution levels near crossroads with different traffic density and the estimation of health risk.

The aim of this study was to determine the influence of traffic density on air pollutant levels as well as to analyse the spatial and temporal distribution of particulate pollutants and their health risk. The following species related to traffic pollution were measured: PM10, elemental and organic carbon and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in PM10 and gas pollutants (SO2, NO2 and CO). The measurements were carried out at four crossroad sites in the city. Samples of PM10 were collected over three periods (6 am to 2 pm, 2 pm to 10 pm and 10 pm to 6 am) on working days and weekends. Statistically significant differences were found between sampling sites for all pollutant concentrations, except for NO2. The highest mass concentrations of PM10, carbon and PAHs were observed in the south of the city with the highest traffic density. Concentrations of gasses (CO and NO2) showed high values in morning and in the late afternoon and evening (west and east). At all measuring sites, the highest concentration of particle-bound pollutants was mostly recorded during morning and afternoon, except at the south, where elevated PAHs concentrations were recorded during night period, which indicated that residential heating takes up a portion of pollution sources in this area. Although for most of the pollutants the concentrations varied during the day, statistically significant differences between sampling periods were not found. The highest health risk was obtained at the south, where it was scored as significant.

Determination of Platinum Group Elements in Particulate Matter by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.

This study examined a method for determination of rhodium (Rh), palladium (Pd) and platinum (Pt) in particulate matter using standard solutions, model samples and certified reference materials (NIST 1648a and ERM CZ120). The method was based on microwave digestion followed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The results showed that the stability of the standard solution mixture of Rh, Pd and Pt was better when chlorides were present in the solution. A membrane filter and one type of quartz filter were the most adequate for analyzing platinum group elements (PGE). Respective limits of detection for Rh, Pd and Pt were 0.028, 0.503 and 0.0265 pg/m3 with a membrane filter and 0.478, 4.530 and 0.070 pg/m3 for one type of quartz filters. The sample matrix had no significant effects on the determination of three PGEs.

Concentrations of PAHs and other gaseous pollutants in the atmosphere of a rural area.

In this study, concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) bound to PM10 particles were measured in a Croatian rural area. Considering that by now only a limited number of studies have provided data on pollutant concentrations for rural areas, our aim was to do so by determining the PAH levels, their mutagenic effect and relationship with meteorological conditions and other gaseous pollutants (NO, NO2, NH3). In this investigation, samples of PM10 particles were collected on quartz filters for 1 month in the cold period and 1 month in the warm period of the year, 24 h a day. Diagnostic PAH concentration ratios and factor analysis were used as tools to identify and characterize the PAH sources. The PAHs found in the warm period of the year were characteristic for car exhaust emissions while the predominant source of these pollutants in the cold period was wood burning. The measurements showed much higher average concentrations of all PAHs in the cold period, most pronounced for fluoranthene 0.347 ng m(-3) and pyrene 0.223 ng m(-3). Mass concentrations of benzo(a)pyrene in the cold period ranged from 0.057 to 1.526 ng m(-3), while in the warm period they varied from 0.009 to 0.111 ng m(-3). Mutagenicity related to BaP (BaPMeq) was significantly higher during the cold period (1.095 ng m(-3)) than in the warm period (0.101 ng m(-3)).

Presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and persistent organochlorine pollutants in human Milk: Evaluating their levels, association with Total antioxidant capacity, and risk assessment.

Breastfeeding provides numerous health benefits for both infants and mothers, promoting optimal growth and development while offering protection against various illnesses and diseases. This study investigated the levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), organochlorine pesticides (OCP) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in human milk sampled in Zadar (Croatia). The primary objectives were twofold: firstly, to evaluate the individual impact of each compound on the total antioxidant capacity (TAC) value, and secondly, to assess associated health risks. Notably, this study presents pioneering and preliminary insights into PAH levels in Croatian human milk, contributing to the limited research on PAH in breast milk worldwide. PCB and OCP levels in Croatian human milk were found to be relatively lower compared to worldwide data. Conversely, PAH levels were comparatively higher, albeit with lower detection frequencies. A negative correlation was established between organic contaminant levels and antioxidative capacity, suggesting a potential link between higher antioxidative potential and lower organic contaminant levels. Diagnostic ratio pointed towards traffic emissions as the primary source of the detected PAH. The presence of PAH suggests potential health risk, underscoring the need for further in-depth investigation.

Air Pollution and Primary DNA Damage among Zagreb (Croatia) Residents: A Cross-Sectional Study.

More than eight million premature deaths annually can be attributed to air pollution, with 99% of the world's population residing in areas below recommended air quality standards. Hence, the present study aimed to examine the association between primary DNA damage and air pollution data among 123 participants enrolled between 2011 and 2015 in Zagreb, Croatia. While most measured air pollutants adhered to regulatory limits, benzo[a]pyrene concentrations bound to PM10 exceeded them. Factorial analysis narrowed down air pollution data to four exposure factors (particulate matter, two metal factors, and other pollutants). Despite the absence of significant positive associations between modeled air pollution exposure factors and comet assay descriptors (tail length, tail intensity, tail moment, and highly damaged nuclei), the critical health implications of air pollution warrant further investigations, particularly with biomarkers of exposure and different biomarkers of effect in populations facing air pollution exposure.

Carcinogenic Activity and Risk Assessment of PAHs in Ambient Air: PM10 Particle Fraction and Bulk Deposition.

This paper present seasonal variation in the equivalent concentration (BaPeq) of PAHs in order to assess the potential cancer risk for two different groups of residents via ingestion, dermal contact and inhalation pathways. The possible ecological risk caused by PAH atmospheric deposition based on risk quotient was also estimated. A bulk (total, wet and dry) deposition and PM10 particle fraction (particles with an equivalent aerodynamic diameter < 10 µm) were collected from June 2020 to May 2021 at an urban residential location in the northern part of Zagreb, Croatia. The monthly average of total equivalent BaPeq mass concentrations of PM10 varied from 0.057 ng m-3 in July to 3.656 ng m-3 in December; the annul ∑BaPeq average was 1.348 ng m-3. In bulk deposition, ∑BaPeq mass concentrations varied from 1.94 to 57.60 ng L-1. In both investigated media, BaP had the highest contribution in carcinogenic activity. For PM10 media, dermal absorption implied the greatest potential cancer risk, followed by ingestion and inhalation. For bulk media, a moderate ecological risk for BaA, BbF and BaP was observed according to the risk quotient approach.

Sources, Ionic Composition and Acidic Properties of Bulk and Wet Atmospheric Deposition in the Eastern Middle Adriatic Region.

Atmospheric bulk and wet deposition samples were collected simultaneously at the background coastal site in the Eastern Middle Adriatic region in order to assess the impact of major ions (Cl-, NO3-, SO42-, Na+, K+, NH4+, Mg2+, Ca2+) on deposition acidity and distinguish the main sources. Higher ion levels were observed during the cold period, especially for Cl-, Na+, Mg2+ and K+. Dust intrusion caused significant increases in levels of Ca2+, Mg2+ and K+, while open-fire events increased the levels of K+. Deposition acidity showed seasonal differences as well as the influence of dust intrusion. Low ionic balance ratios indicated acidic deposition properties and the presence of organic anions. The highest neutralization ability was found for Ca2+, Na+ and NH4+. Several natural (marine, crustal) and anthropogenic sources were determined, as well as the formation of secondary aerosols. Wet deposition was characterized by higher contribution of sea salt fraction compared to bulk deposition and lower contribution of crustal fraction.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at different crossroads in Zagreb, Croatia.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were measured in the PM(10) particle fraction collected at two different measuring sites in Zagreb, Croatia. In summer, concentrations of all PAHs at both sites were low. In winter, mass concentrations of all PAHs measured at southern site were much higher than those at north. Contents of all PAHs in the PM(10) particle fraction were much lower in summer than that in the winter period. For example, average content of BaP in PM(10) in summer was 2.26 ng/mg at site A and 4.17 ng/mg at site B, while in winter it was 34.72 and 46.69 ng/mg, respectively.

Variabilities of biochemical properties of the sea surface microlayer: Insights to the atmospheric deposition impacts.

Atmospheric deposition (AD) of nutrients and its impact on the sea surface requires consideration of interfacial processes within the sea surface microlayer (SML), the ocean-atmosphere boundary layer of major importance for many global biogeochemical and climate-related processes. This study comprised a comprehensive dataset, including dissolved NO3-, NH4+ and PO43- in ambient aerosol particles, wet deposition and sea surface samples collected from February to July 2019 at a central Adriatic coastal site. The aerosol mean concentration of dissolved nitrogen (DIN = NO3- + NH4+) and PO43- were 48.8 ± 82.8 µmol m-3 and 0.8 ± 0.6 µmol m-3, respectively, while their total fluxes (dry + wet) ranged from 24.2 to 212.3 µmol m-2 d-1 (mean 123.2 ± 53.2 µmol m-2 d-1) and from 1.2 to 2.1 µmol m-2 d-1 (mean 1.5 ± 0.3 µmol m-2 d-1), respectively. Intensive local episodes of open biomass burning (BB) significantly increased aerosol DIN concentrations as well as DIN deposition fluxes, particularly altering the molar DIN/PO43- ratio of atmospheric samples. The DIN temporal patterns showed high variability in the SML (range 0.2-24.6 µmol L-1, mean 5.0 ± 7.1 µmol L-1) in contrast to the underlying water samples (range 0.5-4.2 µmol L-1, mean 1.9 ± 1.2 µmol L-1), with significant increases during BB periods. Variability in abundance of heterotrophic bacteria and autotrophs in the SML along with concentrations of bulk dissolved and particulate organic carbon as well as dissolved and particulate lipids and carbohydrates, gel particles and surfactants followed DIN enhancements with a two-week delay. This study showed that AD can affect the short-term scale enrichments of organic matter in the SML, especially when accompanied by BB emissions typical of the overall Mediterranean coastal environment. This could have strong implications for global air-sea exchange processes, including those of climate relevant gases, mediated by the SML.

Machine Learning and Meteorological Normalization for Assessment of Particulate Matter Changes during the COVID-19 Lockdown in Zagreb, Croatia.

In this paper, the authors investigated changes in mass concentrations of particulate matter (PM) during the Coronavirus Disease of 2019 (COVID-19) lockdown. Daily samples of PM1, PM2.5 and PM10 fractions were measured at an urban background sampling site in Zagreb, Croatia from 2009 to late 2020. For the purpose of meteorological normalization, the mass concentrations were fed alongside meteorological and temporal data to Random Forest (RF) and LightGBM (LGB) models tuned by Bayesian optimization. The models' predictions were subsequently de-weathered by meteorological normalization using repeated random resampling of all predictive variables except the trend variable. Three pollution periods in 2020 were examined in detail: January and February, as pre-lockdown, the month of April as the lockdown period, as well as June and July as the "new normal". An evaluation using normalized mass concentrations of particulate matter and Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted. The results showed that no significant differences were observed for PM1, PM2.5 and PM10 in April 2020-compared to the same period in 2018 and 2019. No significant changes were observed for the "new normal" as well. The results thus indicate that a reduction in mobility during COVID-19 lockdown in Zagreb, Croatia, did not significantly affect particulate matter concentration in the long-term..

Influence of lockdown caused by the COVID-19 pandemic on air pollution and carcinogenic content of particulate matter observed in Croatia.

Due to the pandemic of SARS-CoV-2 in Croatia, all unnecessary activities were prohibited during the designated lockdown period (March-May 2020). With reduced human activity, levels of some air pollutants decreased. In this study, mass concentrations of the PM1 particle fraction (particulate matter with an equivalent aerodynamic diameter < 1 µm) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in PM1 and NO2 were measured and compared with concentrations measured in the same period the year before. Air pollutant concentrations were measured at two measuring sites: urban residential and urban traffic. Our results show a concentration decrease by 35% for NO2 and PM1 particles and by 26% for total PAHs at the traffic measuring site. At the residential measuring site, only concentrations of NO2 decreased slightly, but PM1 particles and PAHs were similar to the year before.

Assessment of ozone concentration data from the northern Zagreb area, Croatia, for the period from 2003 to 2016.

A measurement station located in an urban area on the southern slope of the Medvednica Mountain (120 m a.s.l.), close to the Croatian capital Zagreb, provided data for an analysis of the photosmog in the city of Zagreb. Data for the period 2003-2016 obtained from this station and analysed in this work can also be compared with the nearby Puntijarka station (980 m a.s.l.) for which a similar analysis has already been carried out. In Puntijarka station analysis, it has been shown that there is most probably no significant change in ozone concentrations during the observed period. In this study the mean value of the annual ozone volume fractions showed a linear trend of 0.23 ppb yr-1, a growth that is in the worst case scenario among the lowest global prediction, while the seasonal (April-to-September) mean values had a trend of 0.32 ppb yr-1, which is a certain clearly observable growth. The 95-percentile values had trends of 0.009 ppb yr-1 (annual data) and -0.072 ppb yr-1 (seasonal data), respectively. Both of these values show very small changes if any at all. By using FT analysis, with the calculation of uncertainties, we have observed three prominent cycles of 169 ± 4 h (weekly cycle), 24 ± 1 h and 12 ± 1 h (diurnal cycles). Uncertainties were low which strongly indicate that the cycles are present. However, since high concentrations of ozone were observed only sporadically, ozone pollution in the northern part of Zagreb is at the present rather low. A Fourier transformation was used to analyse the data for periodic behaviour, which revealed the existence of diurnal and weekly modulations. Nevertheless, constant monitoring is important and will continue in the future as part of continuous monitoring of the ozone levels in the area.

Pollution levels and deposition processes of airborne organic pollutants over the central Adriatic area: Temporal variabilities and source identification.

First data on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and nitro-aromatic compounds (NACs) in aerosols as well as of PAHs, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and NACs in bulk and wet atmospheric deposition samples were simultaneously obtained during 6-month-long field campaign at the costal central Adriatic area. Special attention was given to open-fire biomass burning episodes as extreme events common for the overall Mediterranean coastal area in order to gain a better understanding of the atmospheric variabilities and potential sources of trace organic pollutants in coastal environments. Diesel and gasoline combustion related to land and maritime traffic as well as occasional open-fire episodes (forest fires) were found to be the dominant pollution sources of PAHs in PM10 particles. NACs were determined almost exclusively in samples affected by biomass burning episodes. Open-fire episodes had a strong contribution to the overall NACs atmospheric deposition fluxes. Several chlorinated congeners of PCBs were predominantly contributed in deposition samples.

Influence of waste dump remediation on the levels of mercury in the air.

Mercury concentrations in air were measured at three measuring sites in the vicinity of a waste dump Jakusevec in Zagreb, Croatia over a 4-year period, from the beginning to the end of remediation. Measurements at the beginning of the remediation show that the concentrations of mercury at all three measuring sites were relatively high. Annual mercury mass concentrations in 2001 were between 17 and 445 ng m(-3). Annual mercury averages in 2004 ranged from 8 to 10 ng m(-3). Mercury variations were analysed with regard to the meteorological conditions. The results of this investigation show that in regard to mercury, the remediation was successful.

Zinc levels in suspended particulate matter in Zagreb air.

Monitoring of zinc in total suspended particulate matter (TSPM) started in Zagreb, Croatia in 1972 at two measuring sites, located in the city centre and in the northern part of the city. Monitoring of zinc concentrations in PM10 started in the northern part of the city in 2003. The obtained data show a decreasing trend of zinc in TSPM. Over the past 3 years, the measurement of zinc in PM10 particles has been performed, and the obtained data, in comparison to zinc in TSPM, have shown that 82%-93% of zinc was in the small PM10 particles.

An optimized sample preparation and analysis method for the determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls in the atmospheric bulk deposition samples.

A method based on solid phase extraction (SPE), gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) and gas chromatography with electron capture detector (GC-ECD) was developed for the determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in atmospheric deposition samples. Six indicator PCB congeners were analysed by GC-ECD equipped with two micro electron-capture detectors and two gas chromatographic columns, while 12 PAH compounds were analysed by GC-MS/MS. Solid phase extraction on silica sorbent proved suitable for accumulation of PAHs and PCBs from deposited matters. The extraction procedure was based by passing the whole sample volume through a silica cartridge with dichloromethane and n-hexane as the eluting solvents. Two different performances of a bulk collector were compared. The method was validated using field total deposited samples collected monthly over a year by bulk method at an urban background station in Zagreb, Croatia. The levels and occurrence of PCBs corresponded to global environmental pollution, with the deposition rates of ∑6PCBs between 6 - 28 ng m-2 d-1. The deposition rates of ∑12PAHs varied between 132 and 714 ng m-2 d-1 during the warm period, whereas it achieved a significantly higher range of 171 to 1069 ng m-2 d-1 in the cold period.

Pollution Sources and Carcinogenic Risk of PAHs in PM1 Particle Fraction in an Urban Area.

Airborne particles are composed of inorganic species and organic compounds. PM1 particles, with an aerodynamic diameter smaller than 1 µm, are considered to be important in the context of adverse health effects. Many compounds bound to particulate matter, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), are suspected to be genotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic. In this study, PAHs in the PM1 particle fraction were measured for one year (1/1/2018-31/12/2018). The measuring station was located in the northern residential part of Zagreb, the Croatian capital, close to a street with modest traffic. Significant differences were found between PAH concentrations during cold (January-March, October-December) and warm (April-September) periods of the year. In general, the mass concentrations of PAHs characteristic for car exhausts (benzo(ghi)perylene (BghiP), indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene (IP), and benzo(b)fluoranthene (BbF)) were higher during the whole year than concentrations of fluoranthene (Flu) and pyrene (Pyr), which originated mostly from domestic heating and biomass burning. Combustion of diesel and gasoline from vehicles was found to be one of the main PAH sources. The incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) was estimated for three age groups of populations and the results were much lower than the acceptable risk level (1 × 10-6). However, more than ten times higher PAH concentrations in the cold part of the year, as well as associated health risk, emphasize the need for monitoring of PAHs in PM1. These data represent a valuable tool in future plans and actions to control PAH sources and to improve the quality of life of urban populations.