Epigenomic Profiling of Human CD4+ T Cells Supports a Linear Differentiation Model and Highlights Molecular Regulators of Memory Development.

The impact of epigenetics on the differentiation of memory T (Tmem) cells is poorly defined. We generated deep epigenomes comprising genome-wide profiles of DNA methylation, histone modifications, DNA accessibility, and coding and non-coding RNA expression in naive, central-, effector-, and terminally differentiated CD45RA+ CD4+ Tmem cells from blood and CD69+ Tmem cells from bone marrow (BM-Tmem). We observed a progressive and proliferation-associated global loss of DNA methylation in heterochromatic parts of the genome during Tmem cell differentiation. Furthermore, distinct gradually changing signatures in the epigenome and the transcriptome supported a linear model of memory development in circulating T cells, while tissue-resident BM-Tmem branched off with a unique epigenetic profile. Integrative analyses identified candidate master regulators of Tmem cell differentiation, including the transcription factor FOXP1. This study highlights the importance of epigenomic changes for Tmem cell biology and demonstrates the value of epigenetic data for the identification of lineage regulators.

Resident memory CD4+ T lymphocytes mobilize from bone marrow to contribute to a systemic secondary immune reaction.

Resident memory T lymphocytes (TRM ) of epithelial tissues and the Bm protect their host tissue. To what extent these cells are mobilized and contribute to systemic immune reactions is less clear. Here, we show that in secondary immune reactions to the measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine, CD4+ TRM are mobilized into the blood within 16 to 48 h after immunization in humans. This mobilization of TRM is cognate: TRM recognizing other antigens are not mobilized, unless they cross-react with the vaccine. We also demonstrate through methylome analyses that TRM are mobilized from the Bm. These mobilized cells make significant contribution to the systemic immune reaction, as evidenced by their T-cell receptor Vß clonotypes represented among the newly generated circulating memory T-cells, 14 days after vaccination. Thus, TRM of the Bm confer not only local, but also systemic immune memory.

Chondrocyte Isolation from Loose Bodies-An Option for Reducing Donor Site Morbidity for Autologous Chondrocyte Implantation.

Loose bodies (LBs) from patients with osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) are usually removed and discarded during surgical treatment of the defect. In this study, we address the question of whether these LBs contain sufficient viable and functional chondrocytes that could serve as a source for autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI) and how the required prolonged in vitro expansion affects their phenotype. Chondrocytes were isolated from LBs of 18 patients and compared with control chondrocyte from non-weight-bearing joint regions (n = 7) and bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells (BMSCs, n = 6) obtained during primary arthroplasty. No significant differences in the initial cell yield per isolation and the expression of the chondrocyte progenitor cell markers CD44 + /CD146+ were found between chondrocyte populations from LBs (LB-CH) and control patients (Ctrl-CH). During long-term expansion, LB-CH exhibited comparable viability and proliferation rates to control cells and no ultimate cell cycle arrest was observed within 12 passages respectively 15.3 ± 1.1 mean cumulative populations doublings (CPD). The chondrogenic differentiation potential was comparable between LB-CH and Ctrl-CH, but both groups showed a significantly higher ability to form a hyaline cartilage matrix in vitro than BMSC. Our data suggest that LBs are a promising cell source for obtaining qualitatively and quantitatively suitable chondrocytes for therapeutic applications, thereby circumventing donor site morbidity as a consequence of the biopsies required for the current ACI procedure.

In situ detection of CD73+ CD90+ CD105+ lineage: Mesenchymal stromal cells in human placenta and bone marrow specimens by chipcytometry.

Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) support endogenous regeneration and present therefore promising opportunities for in situ tissue engineering. They can be isolated and expanded from various tissues, for example, bone marrow, adipose tissue, or placenta. The minimal consensus definition criteria of ex vivo expanded MSCs requires them to be positive for CD73, CD90, and CD105 expression, while being negative for CD34, CD45, CD14, CD19, and HLA-DR. This study aimed to compare the in situ phenotype of MSCs with that of their culture-expanded progeny. We report for the first time in situ detection of cells expressing this marker combination in human placenta cryosections as well as in bone marrow aspirates using multiplex-immunohistology (Chipcytometry), a technique that allows staining of more than 100 biomarkers consecutively on the same cell. © 2018 International Society for Advancement of Cytometry.

Human memory T cells from the bone marrow are resting and maintain long-lasting systemic memory.

In the bone marrow, a population of memory T cells has been described that promotes efficient secondary immune responses and has been considered to be preactivated, owing to its expression of CD69 and CD25. Here we show that human bone marrow professional memory T cells are not activated but are resting in terms of proliferation, transcription, and mobility. They are in the G0 phase of the cell cycle, and their transcriptome is that of resting T cells. The repertoire of CD4(+) bone marrow memory T cells compared with CD4(+) memory T cells from the blood is significantly enriched for T cells specific for cytomegalovirus-pp65 (immunodominant protein), tetanus toxoid, measles, mumps, and rubella. It is not enriched for vaccinia virus and Candida albicans-MP65 (immunodominant protein), typical pathogens of skin and/or mucosa. CD4(+) memory T cells specific for measles are maintained nearly exclusively in the bone marrow. Thus, CD4(+) memory T cells from the bone marrow provide long-term memory for systemic pathogens.

SARS-CoV-2 specific plasma cells acquire long-lived phenotypes in human bone marrow.

BACKGROUND: SARS-CoV-2 specific antibody-secreting plasma cells (PC) mediating specific humoral immunity have been identified in the human bone marrow (BM) after COVID-19 or vaccination against SARS-CoV-2. However, it remained unclear whether or not they acquire phenotypes of human memory plasma cells. METHODS: SARS-CoV-2-specific human bone marrow plasma cells (BMPC) were characterised by tetramer-based, antigen-specific flow cytometry and FluoroSpot assay. FINDINGS: SARS-CoV-2 spike-S1-specific PC were detectable in all tested BM samples of previously vaccinated individuals, representing 0.22% of total BMPC. The majority of SARS-CoV-2-specific BMPC expressed IgG and their specificity for the spike S1 protein indicated emergence from a systemic vaccination response. Of note, one-fifth of SARS-CoV-2-specific BMPC showed the phenotype of memory plasma cells, i.e., downregulated CD19 and present or absent CD45 expression. INTERPRETATION: Our data indicate the establishment of phenotypically diverse SARS-CoV-2-specific PC in the human BM after basic mRNA immunization, including the formation of memory phenotypes. These results suggest the induction of durable humoral immunity after basic mRNA vaccination against SARS-CoV-2. FUNDING: The study was supported by funding by the DFG grants TRR130 TP24, ME 3644/8-1, and the Berlin Senate. SR received funding from DFGSFB-1444 C01 Central Service Project.

Lower-limb internal loading and potential consequences for fracture healing.

Introduction: Mechanical loading is known to determine the course of bone fracture healing. We hypothesise that lower limb long bone loading differs with knee flexion angle during walking and frontal knee alignment, which affects fracture healing success. Materials and methods: Using our musculoskeletal in silico modelling constrained against in vivo data from patients with instrumented knee implants allowed us to assess internal loads in femur and tibia. These internal forces were associated with the clinical outcome of fracture healing in a relevant cohort of 178 extra-articular femur and tibia fractures in patients using a retrospective approach. Results: Mean peak forces differed with femoral compression (1,330-1,936 N at mid-shaft) amounting to about half of tibial compression (2,299-5,224 N). Mean peak bending moments in the frontal plane were greater in the femur (71-130 Nm) than in the tibia (from 26 to 43 Nm), each increasing proximally. Bending in the sagittal plane showed smaller mean peak bending moments in the femur (-38 to 43 Nm) reaching substantially higher values in the tibia (-63 to -175 Nm) with a peak proximally. Peak torsional moments had opposite directions for the femur (-13 to -40 Nm) versus tibia (15-48 Nm) with an increase towards the proximal end in both. Femoral fractures showed significantly lower scores in the modified Radiological Union Scale for Tibia (mRUST) at last follow-up (p < 0.001) compared to tibial fractures. Specifically, compression (r = 0.304), sagittal bending (r = 0.259), and frontal bending (r = -0.318) showed strong associations (p < 0.001) to mRUST at last follow-up. This was not the case for age, body weight, or localisation alone. Discussion: This study showed that moments in femur and tibia tend to decrease towards their distal ends. Tibial load components were influenced by knee flexion angle, especially at push-off, while static frontal alignment played a smaller role. Our results indicate that femur and tibia are loaded differently and thus require adapted fracture fixation considering load components rather than just overall load level.

Individual immune cell and cytokine profiles determine platelet-rich plasma composition.

OBJECTIVE: Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) therapy is increasingly popular to treat musculoskeletal diseases, including tendinopathies and osteoarthritis (OA). To date, it remains unclear to which extent PRP compositions are determined by the immune cell and cytokine profile of individuals or by the preparation method. To investigate this, we compared leukocyte and cytokine distributions of different PRP products to donor blood samples and assessed the effect of pro-inflammatory cytokines on chondrocytes. DESIGN: For each of three PRP preparations (ACP®, Angel™, and nSTRIDE® APS), products were derived using whole blood samples from twelve healthy donors. The cellular composition of PRP products was analyzed by flow cytometry using DURAClone antibody panels (DURAClone IM Phenotyping Basic and DURAClone IM T Cell Subsets). The MESO QuickPlex SQ 120 system was used to assess cytokine profiles (V-PLEX Proinflammatory Panel 1 Human Kit, Meso Scale Discovery). Primary human chondrocyte 2D and 3D in vitro cultures were exposed to recombinant IFN-γ and TNF-α. Proliferation and chondrogenic differentiation were quantitatively assessed. RESULTS: All three PRP products showed elevated portions of leukocytes compared to baseline levels in donor blood. Furthermore, the pro-inflammatory cytokines IFN-γ and TNF-α were significantly increased in nSTRIDE® APS samples compared to donor blood and other PRP products. The characteristics of all other cytokines and immune cells from the donor blood, including pro-inflammatory T cell subsets, were maintained in all PRP products. Chondrocyte proliferation was impaired by IFN-γ and enhanced by TNF-α treatment. Differentiation and cartilage formation were compromised upon treatment with both cytokines, resulting in altered messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) expression of collagen type 1A1 (COL1A1), COL2A1, and aggrecan (ACAN) as well as reduced proteoglycan content. CONCLUSIONS: Individuals with elevated levels of cells with pro-inflammatory properties maintain these in the final PRP products. The concentration of pro-inflammatory cytokines strongly varies between PRP products. These observations may help to unravel the previously described heterogeneous response to PRP in OA therapy, especially as IFN-γ and TNF-α impacted primary chondrocyte proliferation and their characteristic gene expression profile. Both the individual's immune profile and the concentration method appear to impact the final PRP product. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This study was prospectively registered in the Deutsches Register Klinischer Studien (DRKS) on 4 November 2021 (registration number DRKS00026175).

A ubiquitous bone marrow reservoir of preexisting SARS-CoV-2-reactive memory CD4+ T lymphocytes in unexposed individuals.

Circulating, blood-borne SARS-CoV-2-reactive memory T cells in persons so far unexposed to SARS-CoV-2 or the vaccines have been described in 20-100% of the adult population. They are credited with determining the efficacy of the immune response in COVID-19. Here, we demonstrate the presence of preexisting memory CD4+ T cells reacting to peptides of the spike, membrane, or nucleocapsid proteins of SARS-CoV-2 in the bone marrow of all 17 persons investigated that had previously not been exposed to SARS-CoV-2 or one of the vaccines targeting it, with only 15 of these persons also having such cells detectable circulating in the blood. The preexisting SARS-CoV-2-reactive memory CD4+ T cells of the bone marrow are abundant and polyfunctional, with the phenotype of central memory T cells. They are tissue-resident, at least in those persons who do not have such cells in the blood, and about 30% of them express CD69. Bone marrow resident SARS-CoV-2-reactive memory CD4+ memory T cells are also abundant in vaccinated persons analyzed 10-168 days after 1°-4° vaccination. Apart from securing the bone marrow, preexisting cross-reactive memory CD4+ T cells may play an important role in shaping the systemic immune response to SARS-CoV-2 and the vaccines, and contribute essentially to the rapid establishment of long-lasting immunity provided by memory plasma cells, already upon primary infection.

Metal-Specific Biomaterial Accumulation in Human Peri-Implant Bone and Bone Marrow.

Metallic implants are frequently used in medicine to support and replace degenerated tissues. Implant loosening due to particle exposure remains a major cause for revision arthroplasty. The exact role of metal debris in sterile peri-implant inflammation is controversial, as it remains unclear whether and how metals chemically alter and potentially accumulate behind an insulating peri-implant membrane, in the adjacent bone and bone marrow (BM). An intensively focused and bright synchrotron X-ray beam allows for spatially resolving the multi-elemental composition of peri-implant tissues from patients undergoing revision surgery. In peri-implant BM, particulate cobalt (Co) is exclusively co-localized with chromium (Cr), non-particulate Cr accumulates in the BM matrix. Particles consisting of Co and Cr contain less Co than bulk alloy, which indicates a pronounced dissolution capacity. Particulate titanium (Ti) is abundant in the BM and analyzed Ti nanoparticles predominantly consist of titanium dioxide in the anatase crystal phase. Co and Cr but not Ti integrate into peri-implant bone trabeculae. The characteristic of Cr to accumulate in the intertrabecular matrix and trabecular bone is reproducible in a human 3D in vitro model. This study illustrates the importance of updating the view on long-term consequences of biomaterial usage and reveals toxicokinetics within highly sensitive organs.

Exercise capacity and body composition in living-donor renal transplant recipients over time.

BACKGROUND: Renal transplantation (RTx) restitutes the function of the failing organ and induces convalescence of the entire organism. Our study investigates whether this is accompanied by improvements in cardiovascular function and structural changes. METHODS: A total of 25 Caucasian patients (14 male, median age 44.2 +/- 9.2 years, BMI 23.7 +/- 4.0 kg/m(2)) were assessed in a prospective trial before, 1, 3 and 12 months after RTx from living donors by clinical examination, cardiopulmonary exercise testing, dual X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) and analysis of plasma indices. RESULTS: Creatinine clearance improved from 8.0 +/- 3.1 to 60.9 +/- 18.1 mL/min at 1 month, but declined at 3 (51.6 +/- 16.3 mL/min) and 12 months (53.6 +/- 20.8 mL/min, P = 0.04 versus month 1). Body composition shifted from lean towards fat tissue (25.8 +/- 12.5-31.2 +/- 11.2% body fat content, P = 0.0001). Only baseline lean weight correlated with fat increase over time (r(2) = 0.28, P = 0.008). Patients with fat content above median (n = 13) had a 3-fold increased hazard ratio of infection (CI 1.04-9.41, P = 0.042) and overall hospitalization (hazard ratio 2.95, CI 1.10-7.93, P = 0.03). PeakVO(2) decreased over RTx (23.2 +/- 6.0- 17.6 +/- 5.1 mL/kg/min) and returned to baseline levels not until 1 year later (P < 0.001). After an initial decline, muscle oxidative capacity (peakVO(2)/lean mass) improved from 33.6 +/- 10.1 to 35.0 +/- 8.2 mL/kg/min at 12 months after RTx (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: After RTx, body composition shifted continuously towards fat tissue, and baseline lean weight significantly correlated with fat increase over time. Both severe infections and hospitalizations are associated with a higher fat content before RTx. Exercise capacity (peakVO(2)) worsened after RTx and restitutes during follow-up, with muscle quality (peakVO(2)/lean) even exceeding baseline levels after 12 months.

Individual Effector/Regulator T Cell Ratios Impact Bone Regeneration.

There is increasing evidence that T lymphocytes play a key role in controlling endogenous regeneration. Regeneration appears to be impaired in case of local accumulation of CD8+ effector T cells (TEFF), impairing endogenous regeneration by increasing a primary "useful" inflammation toward a damaging level. Thus, rescuing regeneration by regulating the heightened pro-inflammatory reaction employing regulatory CD4+ T (TReg) cells could represent an immunomodulatory option to enhance healing. Hypothesis was that CD4+ TReg might counteract undesired effects of CD8+ TEFF. Using adoptive TReg transfer, bone healing was consistently improved in mice possessing an inexperienced immune system with low amounts of CD8+ TEFF. In contrast, mice with an experienced immune system (high amounts of CD8+ TEFF) showed heterogeneous bone repair with regeneration being dependent upon the individual TEFF/TReg ratio. Thus, the healing outcome can only be improved by an adoptive TReg therapy, if an unfavorable TEFF/TReg ratio can be reshaped; if the individual CD8+ TEFF percentage, which is dependent on the individual immune experience can be changed toward a favorable ratio by the TReg transfer. Remarkably, also in patients with impaired fracture healing the TEFF/TReg ratio was higher compared to uneventful healers, validating our finding in the mouse osteotomy model. Our data demonstrate for the first time the key-role of a balanced TEFF/TReg response following injury needed to reach successful regeneration using bone as a model system. Considering this strategy, novel opportunities for immunotherapy in patients, which are at risk for impaired healing by targeting TEFF cells and supporting TReg cells to enhance healing are possible.

Multi-Parameter Analysis of Biobanked Human Bone Marrow Stromal Cells Shows Little Influence for Donor Age and Mild Comorbidities on Phenotypic and Functional Properties.

Heterogeneous populations of human bone marrow-derived stromal cells (BMSC) are among the most frequently tested cellular therapeutics for treating degenerative and immune disorders, which occur predominantly in the aging population. Currently, it is unclear whether advanced donor age and commonly associated comorbidities affect the properties of ex vivo-expanded BMSCs. Thus, we stratified cells from adult and elderly donors from our biobank (n = 10 and n = 13, mean age 38 and 72 years, respectively) and compared their phenotypic and functional performance, using multiple assays typically employed as minimal criteria for defining multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs). We found that BMSCs from both cohorts meet the standard criteria for MSC, exhibiting similar morphology, growth kinetics, gene expression profiles, and pro-angiogenic and immunosuppressive potential and the capacity to differentiate toward adipogenic, chondrogenic, and osteogenic lineages. We found no substantial differences between cells from the adult and elderly cohorts. As positive controls, we studied the impact of in vitro aging and inflammatory cytokine stimulation. Both conditions clearly affected the cellular properties, independent of donor age. We conclude that in vitro aging rather than in vivo donor aging influences BMSC characteristics.

CD31+ Cells From Peripheral Blood Facilitate Bone Regeneration in Biologically Impaired Conditions Through Combined Effects on Immunomodulation and Angiogenesis.

Controlled revascularization and inflammation are key elements regulating endogenous regeneration after (bone) tissue trauma. Peripheral blood-derived cell subsets, such as regulatory T-helper cells and circulating (endothelial) progenitor cells, respectively, can support endogenous tissue healing, whereas effector T cells that are associated with an aged immune system can hinder bone regeneration. CD31 is expressed by diverse leukocytes and is well recognized as a marker of circulating endothelial (precursor) cells; however, CD31 is absent from the surface of differentiated effector T cells. Thus, we hypothesized that by separating the inhibitory fractions from the supportive fractions of circulating cells within the peripheral blood (PB) using the CD31 marker, bone regeneration in biologically compromised conditions, such as those observed in aged patients, could be improved. In support of our hypothesis, we detected an inverse correlation between CD31+ cells and effector T cells in the hematomas of human fracture patients, dependent on the age of the patient. Furthermore, we demonstrated the regenerative capacity of human PB-CD31+ cells in vitro. These findings were translated to a clinically relevant rat model of impaired bone healing. The transplantation of rat PB-CD31+ cells advanced bone tissue restoration in vivo and was associated with an early anti-inflammatory response, the stimulation of (re)vascularization, and reduced fibrosis. Interestingly, the depletion or enrichment of the highly abundant CD31+/14+ monocytes from the mixed CD31+ cell population diminished tissue regeneration at different levels, suggesting combined effects within the PB-CD31+ subsets. In summary, an intraoperative enrichment of PB-CD31+ cells might be a novel option to facilitate endogenous regeneration under biologically impaired situations by supporting immunomodulation and vascularization. © 2016 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

Qualifying stem cell sources: how to overcome potential pitfalls in regenerative medicine?

Regenerative medicine aims to replace lost cells and to restore damaged tissues and organs by either tissue-engineering approaches or stimulation of endogenous processes. Due to their biological properties, stem cells promise to be an effective source for such strategies. Especially adult multipotent stem cells (ASCs) are believed to be applicable in a broad range of therapies for the treatment of multifactorial diseases or age-related degeneration, although the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying their regenerative function are often hardly described. Moreover, in some demanding clinical situations their efficiency remains limited. Thus, a basic understanding of ASCs regenerative function, their complex interplay with their microenvironment and how compromising conditions interfere with their efficiency is mandatory for any regenerative strategy. Concerning this matter, the impact of patient-specific constraints are often underestimated in research projects and their influence on the study results disregarded. Thus, researchers are urgently depending on well-characterized tissue samples or cells that are connected with corresponding donor information, such as secondary diseases, medication. Here, we outline principle pitfalls during experimental studies using human samples, and describe a potential strategy to overcome these challenges by establishing a core unit for cell and tissue harvesting. This facility aims to bridge the gap between clinic and research laboratories by the provision of a direct link to the clinical operating theatres. Such a strategy clearly supports basic and clinical research in the conduct of their studies and supplies highly characterized human samples together with the corresponding donor information.

Synthetic niche to modulate regenerative potential of MSCs and enhance skeletal muscle regeneration.

Severe injury to the skeletal muscle often results in the formation of scar tissue, leading to a decline in functional performance. Traditionally, tissue engineering strategies for muscle repair have focused on substrates that promote myogenic differentiation of transplanted cells. In the current study, the reported data indicates that mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) transplanted via porous alginate cryogels promote muscle regeneration by secreting bioactive factors that profoundly influence the function of muscle progenitor cells. These cellular functions, which include heightened resistance of muscle progenitor cells to apoptosis, migration to site of injury, and prevention of premature differentiation are highly desirable in the healing cascade after acute muscle trauma. Furthermore, stimulation of MSCs with recombinant growth factors IGF-1 and VEGF165 was found to significantly enhance their paracrine effects on muscle progenitor cells. Multifunctional alginate cryogels were then utilized as synthetic niches that facilitate local stimulation of seeded MSCs by providing a sustained release of growth factors. In a clinically relevant injury model, the modulation of MSC paracrine signaling via engineered niches significantly improved muscle function by remodeling scar tissue and promoting the formation of new myofibers, outperforming standalone cell or growth factor delivery.

Terminally differentiated CD8⁺ T cells negatively affect bone regeneration in humans.

There is growing evidence that adaptive immunity contributes to endogenous regeneration processes: For example, endogenous bone fracture repair is modulated by T cells even in the absence of infection. Because delayed or incomplete fracture healing is associated with poor long-term outcomes and high socioeconomic costs, we investigated the relationship between an individual's immune reactivity and healing outcome. Our study revealed that delayed fracture healing significantly correlated with enhanced levels of terminally differentiated CD8(+) effector memory T (TEMRA) cells (CD3(+)CD8(+)CD11a(++)CD28(-)CD57(+) T cells) in peripheral blood. This difference was long lasting, reflecting rather the individual's immune profile in response to lifelong antigen exposure than a post-fracture reaction. Moreover, CD8(+) TEMRA cells were enriched in fracture hematoma; these cells were the major producers of interferon-γ/tumor necrosis factor-α, which inhibit osteogenic differentiation and survival of human mesenchymal stromal cells. Accordingly, depletion of CD8(+) T cells in a mouse osteotomy model resulted in enhanced endogenous fracture regeneration, whereas a transfer of CD8(+) T cells impaired the healing process. Our data demonstrate the high impact of the individual adaptive immune profile on endogenous bone regeneration. Quantification of CD8(+) TEMRA cells represents a potential marker for the prognosis of the healing outcome and opens new opportunities for early and targeted intervention strategies.

Absolute and functional iron deficiency in professional athletes during training and recovery.

BACKGROUND: Iron deficiency (ID) is one of the most important metabolic dysfunctions. Athletic performance depends on oxygen transport and mitochondrial efficiency, thus on optimal iron balance. We hypothesised that physical extremes result in ID in elite athletes and that the short recovery period may be insufficient to allow a lasting replenishment of iron reserves. METHODS: Iron metabolism was examined in 20 elite rowing athletes and 10 professional soccer players at the end of a competitive season, after recuperation and during pre-season training. Absolute ID values were defined as ferritin <30 µg/L, functional ID as ferritin 30-99 µg/L or 100-299 µg/L+transferrin saturation <20%. RESULTS: At the end of season, 27% of all athletes had absolute ID and 70% showed functional ID. Absolute iron depletion was not generally restored after recuperation and observed at all time points in 14% of the athletes. Although athletes with initially low ferritin levels showed a slight increase during recuperation (p<0.09), these increases remained within borderline levels. Furthermore, 10% showed borderline haemoglobin levels, suggestive of mild anaemia, as defined by the World Health Organisation. CONCLUSION: A significant proportion of professional athletes have ID, independent of the training mode. Although recuperation seems to allow a certain recovery of iron storage, particularly in athletes with initially low ferritin levels, this retrieval was insufficient to fully normalise reduced iron levels. Therefore, iron status should be carefully monitored during the various training and competitive periods in elite athletes. An adequate iron supplementation may be needed to maintain balanced iron stores.

The influence of recovery and training phases on body composition, peripheral vascular function and immune system of professional soccer players.

Professional soccer players have a lengthy playing season, throughout which high levels of physical stress are maintained. The following recuperation period, before starting the next pre-season training phase, is generally considered short but sufficient to allow a decrease in these stress levels and therefore a reduction in the propensity for injury or musculoskeletal tissue damage. We hypothesised that these physical extremes influence the body composition, blood flow, and endothelial/immune function, but that the recuperation may be insufficient to allow a reduction of tissue stress damage. Ten professional football players were examined at the end of the playing season, at the end of the season intermission, and after the next pre-season endurance training. Peripheral blood flow and body composition were assessed using venous occlusion plethysmography and DEXA scanning respectively. In addition, selected inflammatory and immune parameters were analysed from blood samples. Following the recuperation period a significant decrease of lean body mass from 74.4+/-4.2 kg to 72.2+/-3.9 kg was observed, but an increase of fat mass from 10.3+/-5.6 kg to 11.1+/-5.4 kg, almost completely reversed the changes seen in the pre-season training phase. Remarkably, both resting and post-ischemic blood flow (7.3+/-3.4 and 26.0+/-6.3 ml/100 ml/min) respectively, were strongly reduced during the playing and training stress phases, but both parameters increased to normal levels (9.0+/-2.7 and 33.9+/-7.6 ml/100 ml/min) during the season intermission. Recovery was also characterized by rising levels of serum creatinine, granulocytes count, total IL-8, serum nitrate, ferritin, and bilirubin. These data suggest a compensated hypo-perfusion of muscle during the playing season, followed by an intramuscular ischemia/reperfusion syndrome during the recovery phase that is associated with muscle protein turnover and inflammatory endothelial reaction, as demonstrated by iNOS and HO-1 activation, as well as IL-8 release. The data provided from this study suggest that the immune system is not able to function fully during periods of high physical stress. The implications of this study are that recuperation should be carefully monitored in athletes who undergo intensive training over extended periods, but that these parameters may also prove useful for determining an individual's risk of tissue stress and possibly their susceptibility to progressive tissue damage or injury.