Combination of Targeted Therapies for Colorectal Cancer Treatment.

The design of innovative therapeutic strategies enabling the selective destruction of tumor cells while sparing healthy tissues remains highly challenging in cancer therapy. Here, we show that the combination of two targeted therapies, including bevacizumab (Bev), and a ß-glucuronidase-responsive albumin-binding prodrug of monomethyl auristatin E (MMAE), is efficient for the treatment of colorectal cancer implanted in mice. This combined therapy produces a therapeutic activity superior to that of the association of FOLFOX and Bev currently used to treat patients with this pathology. The increased anticancer efficacy is due to either a synergistic or an additive effect between Bev and MMAE selectively released from the glucuronide prodrug in the tumor microenvironment. Since numerous drug delivery systems such as antibody-drug conjugates employ MMAE as a cytotoxic payload, this finding may be of great interest for improving their therapeutic index by combining them with Bev, particularly for the therapy of colorectal cancer.

A ß-Cyclodextrin-Albumin Conjugate for Enhancing Therapeutic Efficacy of Cytotoxic Drugs.

Enhancing the selectivity of anticancer drugs currently used in the clinic is of great interest in order to propose more efficient chemotherapies with fewer side effects for patients. In this context, we developed a ß-cyclodextrin trimer that binds to circulating albumin to form the corresponding bioconjugate in the bloodstream. This latter can then entrap doxorubicin following its i.v. administration via the formation of a host-guest inclusion complex and deliver the drug in tumors. In this study, we demonstrate that the ß-cyclodextrin trimer improves the therapeutic efficacy of doxorubicin for the treatment of a subcutaneous murine Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) implanted in C57BL/6 mice. This outcome is associated with an increased deposition of doxorubicin in malignant tissues when used in combination with the ß-cyclodextrin trimer compared to the administration of the drug alone.

Enzyme-Cleavable Linkers for Protein Chemical Synthesis through Solid-Phase Ligations.

The total synthesis of long proteins requires the assembly of multiple fragments through successive ligations. The need for intermediate purification steps is a strong limitation, particularly in terms of overall yield. One solution to this problem would be solid-supported chemical ligation (SPCL), for which a first peptide segment must be immobilized on a SPCL-compatible solid support through a linker that can be cleaved under very mild conditions to release the assembled protein. The cleavage of SPCL linkers has previously required chemical conditions sometimes incompatible with sensitive protein targets. Herein, we describe an alternative enzymatic approach to trigger cleavage under extremely mild and selective conditions. Optimization of the linker structure and use of a small enzyme able to diffuse into the solid support were key to the success of the strategy. We demonstrated its utility by the assembly of three peptide segments on the basis of native chemical ligation to afford a 15 kDa polypeptide.

The Lossen rearrangement from free hydroxamic acids.

The Lossen rearrangement, that allows the conversion of hydroxamic acids into isocyanates, was discovered almost 150 years ago. For more than a century, this transformation was supposed to occur exclusively in the presence of stoichiometric amounts of activating reagents devoted to promoting the dehydration of primary hydroxamic acids. Very recently, it was demonstrated that the Lossen rearrangement can take place directly from free hydroxamic acids offering a renewal of interest for such a reaction. This short review summarizes advances in this field by describing successively the metal-assisted, the self-propagative and the promoted self-propagative Lossen rearrangement with a special emphasis on their mechanisms.

Volatile Organic Compound Based Probe for Induced Volatolomics of Cancers.

The development of efficient protocols for cancer diagnosis remains highly challenging. An emerging approach relies on the detection in exhaled breath of volatile organic compounds (VOC) produced by tumours. In this context, described here is a novel strategy in which a VOC-based probe is converted selectively in malignant tissues, by a tumour-associated enzyme, for releasing the corresponding VOC. The latter is then detected in the exhaled breath as a tumour marker for cancer diagnosis. This approach allows the detection of several different tumours in mice, the monitoring of tumour growth and tumour response to chemotherapy. Thus, the concept of "induced volatolomics" provides a new way to explore biological processes using VOC-based probes that could be adapted to many biomedical applications.

Controlled Release of a Micelle Payload via Sequential Enzymatic and Bioorthogonal Reactions in Living Systems.

A bioorthogonal approach is explored to release the content of nanoparticles on demand. Exploiting our recently described click-and-release technology, we developed a new generation of cleavable micelles able to disassemble through a sequential enzymatic and bioorthogonal activation process. Proof-of-concept experiments showed that this new approach could be successfully used to deliver the substances encapsulated into micelles in living cells as well as in mice by two complementary targeted strategies.

An Enzyme-Responsive Self-Immolative Recognition Marker for Manipulating Cell-Cell Interactions.

The development of innovative strategies for cell membranes engineering is of prime interest to explore and manipulate cell-cell interactions. Herein, an enzyme-sensitive recognition marker that can be introduced on cell surface via bioorthogonal chemistry is designed. Once functionalized in this fashion, the cells gain the ability to assemble with cell partners coated with the complementary marker through non-covalent click chemistry. The artificial cell adhesion induces natural biological processes associated with cell proximity such as inhibiting cancer cell proliferation and migration. On the other hand, the enzymatic activation of the stimuli-responsive marker triggers the disassembly of cells, thereby restoring the tumor cell proliferation and migration rates. Thus, the study shows that the ready-to-use complementary markers are valuable tools for controlling the formation and the breaking of bonds between cells, offering an easy way to investigate biological processes associated to cell proximity.

An enzyme-responsive system programmed for the double release of bioactive molecules through an intracellular chemical amplification process.

The rise of chemical biology has led to the development of sophisticated molecular devices designed to explore and manipulate biological processes. Within this framework, we developed the first chemical system programmed for the selective internalization and subsequent enzyme-catalyzed double release of bioactive compounds inside a targeted population of cells. This system is composed of five distinct units including a targeting ligand, an enzymatic trigger, a self-immolative linker and two active compounds articulated around a chemical amplifier. Designed as such, this molecular assembly is capable in an autonomous manner to recognize a selected population of cells, penetrate into the intracellular medium through endocytosis and transform a single enzymatic activation step into the release of two active units. Demonstrating that an enzyme-catalyzed amplification process can occur spontaneously under the conditions prevailing within the cells could be an important step toward the development of innovative molecular systems for a diverse range of applications spanning drug delivery, biological sensors and diagnostics.

Induced-volatolomics for the design of tumour activated therapy.

The discovery of tumour-associated markers is of major interest for the development of selective cancer chemotherapy. Within this framework, we introduced the concept of induced-volatolomics enabling to monitor simultaneously the dysregulation of several tumour-associated enzymes in living mice or biopsies. This approach relies on the use of a cocktail of volatile organic compound (VOC)-based probes that are activated enzymatically for releasing the corresponding VOCs. Exogenous VOCs can then be detected in the breath of mice or in the headspace above solid biopsies as specific tracers of enzyme activities. Our induced-volatolomics modality highlighted that the up-regulation of N-acetylglucosaminidase was a hallmark of several solid tumours. Having identified this glycosidase as a potential target for cancer therapy, we designed an enzyme-responsive albumin-binding prodrug of the potent monomethyl auristatin E programmed for the selective release of the drug in the tumour microenvironment. This tumour activated therapy produced a remarkable therapeutic efficacy on orthotopic triple-negative mammary xenografts in mice, leading to the disappearance of tumours in 66% of treated animals. Thus, this study shows the potential of induced-volatolomics for the exploration of biological processes as well as the discovery of novel therapeutic strategies.

The first generation of ß-galactosidase-responsive prodrugs designed for the selective treatment of solid tumors in prodrug monotherapy.

Massive attack: Galactoside prodrugs have been designed that can be selectively activated by lysosomal ß-galactosidase located inside cancer cells expressing a specific tumor-associated receptor. This efficient enzymatic process triggers a potent cytotoxic effect, releasing the potent antimitotic agent MMAE and allowing the destruction of both receptor-positive and surrounding receptor-negative tumor cells.

A new cyclopamine glucuronide prodrug with improved kinetics of drug release.

We prepared a new glucuronide prodrug of cyclopamine designed to target selectively the Hedgehog signalling pathway of cancer cells. This prodrug includes a novel self-immolative linker bearing a hydrophilic side chain that can be easily introduced via"click chemistry". With this design, the prodrug exhibits reduced toxicity compared to the free drug on U87 glioblastoma cells. However, in the presence of ß-glucuronidase, the prodrug conducts to the quick release of cyclopamine thereby restoring its antiproliferative activity.

Cell-cell interactions via non-covalent click chemistry.

Metabolic glycoengineering with unnatural sugars became a valuable tool for introducing recognition markers on the cell membranes via bioorthogonal chemistry. By using this strategy, we functionalized the surface of tumor and T cells using complementary artificial markers based on both ß-cyclodextrins (ß-CDs) and adamantyl trimers, respectively. Once tied on cell surfaces, the artificial markers induced cell-cell adhesion through non-covalent click chemistry. These unnatural interactions between A459 lung tumor cells and Jurkat T cells triggered the activation of natural killer (NK) cells thanks to the increased production of interleukin-2 (IL-2) in the vicinity of cancer cells, leading ultimately to their cytolysis. The ready-to-use surface markers designed in this study can be easily inserted on the membrane of a wide range of cells previously submitted to metabolic glycoengineering, thereby offering a simple way to investigate and manipulate intercellular interactions.

Development of an embedded multimodality imaging platform for onco-pharmacology using a smart anticancer prodrug as an example.

Increasingly, in vivo imaging holds a strategic position in bio-pharmaceutical innovation. We will present the implementation of an integrated multimodal imaging setup enabling the assessment of multiple, complementary parameters. The system allows the fusion of information provided by: Near infrared fluorescent biomarkers, bioluminescence (for tumor proliferation status), Photoacoustic and Ultrasound imaging. We will study representative applications to the development of a smart prodrug, delivering a highly cytotoxic chemotherapeutic agent to cancer tumors. The results realized the ability of this embedded, multimodality imaging platform to firstly detect bioluminescent and fluorescent signals, and secondly, record ultrasound and photoacoustic data from the same animal. This study demonstrated that the prodrug was effective in three different models of hypoxia in human cancers compared to the parental cytotoxic agent and the vehicle groups. Monitoring by photoacoustic imaging during the treatments revealed that the prodrug exhibits an intrinsic capability to prevent the progression of tumor hypoxia. It is essential for onco-pharmacology studies to precisely document the hypoxic status of tumors both before and during the time course of treatments. This approach opens new perspectives for exploitation of preclinical mouse models of cancer, especially when considering associations between hypoxia, neoangiogenesis and antitumor activity.

In vivo synthesis of triple-loaded albumin conjugate for efficient targeted cancer chemotherapy.

The development of selective anticancer drugs avoiding side effects met in the course of almost all current treatments is of major interest for cancer patients. Here, we report on a novel ß-glucuronidase-responsive drug delivery system allowing the in vivo synthesis of triple-loaded albumin conjugate. Following intravenous administration, the glucuronide prodrug reacts in the blood stream with the cysteine-34 residue of circulating albumin through thio-Michael addition, enabling the bioconjugation of three Monomethylauristatin E (MMAE) molecules to the plasmatic protein. The albumin conjugate then accumulates in malignant tissues where tumor-associated ß-glucuronidase triggers the selective release of the whole transported drugs. By operating this way, the trimeric glucuronide prodrug produces remarkable anticancer activity on orthotopic MIA PaCa-2 pancreatic tumors, leading to dramatic reduction or even remission of tumors (3/8 mice).

Monitoring glycosidase activity for clustered sugar substrates, a study on ß-glucuronidase.

Determination of glycosidase hydrolysis kinetics for a monovalent sugar substrate is relatively straightforward and classically achieved by monitoring the fluorescence signal released from the sugar-conjugated probe after enzymatic hydrolysis. Naturally occuring sugar epitopes are, however, often clustered on biopolymers or at biological surfaces, and previous reports have shown that glycosidase hydrolytic rates can differ greatly with multivalent presentation of the sugar epitopes. New probes are needed to make it easier to interpret the importance of substrate clustering towards a specific enzyme activity. In this work, we developed multivalent glucuronide substrates attached to fluorescent amino-coumarines through self-immolative linkers to enable real time-monitoring of the hydrolysing activity of E.coli ß-glucuronidases (GUS) towards clustered substrates. GUS are exoglycosidases of considerable therapeutic interest cleaving ß-d-glucuronides and are found in the lysosomes, in the tumoral microenvironment, and are expressed by gut microbiota. GUS showed a much lower catalytic efficiency in hydrolysing clustered glucuronides due to a significantly lower enzymatic velocity and affinity for the substrates. GUS was 52-fold less efficient in hydrolysing GlcA substrates presented on an octameric silsequioxane (COSS) compared with a monovalent GlcA of similar chemical structure. Thus, kinetic and thermodynamic data of GUS hydrolysis towards multivalent glucuronides were easily obtained with these new types of enzymatically-triggered probes. More generally, adapting the substrate nature and valency of these new probes, should improve understanding of the impact of multivalency for a specific enzyme.

Function-Oriented Synthesis toward Peloruside A Analogues.

A convergent and rapid synthesis of original C2,C3-unsaturated, C11,C13-keto-enol macrocycles with a peloruside A skeleton has been developed. These original unsaturated macrocycles constitute valuable platforms to access peloruside A analogues with high diversity. The four-fragment strategy implemented features two aldol-type couplings with the central C12-C14 building block TES-diazoacetone and a late-stage ring-closing metathesis. Enantiopure analogue 18ab showed antiproliferative activity in the low micromolar range on NCI and MCF7 tumor cell lines.

A ß-glucuronidase-responsive albumin-binding prodrug programmed for the double release of monomethyl auristatin E.

We report on the synthesis, in vitro and in vivo biological evaluations of a dimeric ß-glucuronidase-responsive albumin-binding prodrug designed for the double release of MMAE upon a single enzymatic activation step. This prodrug produced a significant antitumour activity in mice bearing subcutaneous LS174T colorectal adenocarcinoma xenografts without inducing side effects.

Reduction-rebridging strategy for the preparation of ADPN-based antibody-drug conjugates.

The reduction-rebridging strategy is a powerful method for the preparation of stable and homogeneous antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs). In this communication, we describe the development of the arylene-dipropiolonitrile (ADPN) functional group for the rebridging of reduced disulphide bonds and its application in the preparation of potent and selective ADCs.

A ß-glucuronidase-responsive albumin-binding prodrug for potential selective kinase inhibitor-based cancer chemotherapy.

We report on the synthesis and in vitro biological evaluations of a nanomolar protein kinase inhibitor (PKI) and its ß-glucuronidase-responsive albumin-binding prodrug. The highly potent PKI is 400-3400 times more cytotoxic than the well-known PKI Roscovitine. The prodrug is able to bind covalently to human serum albumin through Michael addition and release the cytotoxic PKI in the presence of ß-glucuronidase, an enzyme over-expressed in the microenvironment of solid tumours.

In situ targeted activation of an anticancer agent using ultrasound-triggered release of composite droplets.

The efficiency of a drug is usually highly dependent on the way it is administered or delivered. As such, targeted-therapy, which requires conceiving drug-delivery vehicles that will change their state from a relatively stable structure with a very slow leak-rate to an unstable structure with a fast release, clearly improves the pharmacokinetics, the absorption, the distribution, the metabolism and the therapeutic index of a given drug. In this context, we have developed a particularly effective double stimuli-responsive drug-delivery method allowing an ultrasound-induced release of a monomethylauristatin E-glucuronide prodrug and its subsequent activation by a ß-glucuronidase. This led to an increase of cytotoxicity of about 80% on cancer cells.