Regulatory mechanisms of stem cell differentiation: Biotechnological applications for neurogenesis.

The world population's life expectancy is growing, and neurodegenerative disorders common in old age require more efficient therapies. In this context, neural stem cells (NSCs) are imperative for the development and maintenance of the functioning of the nervous system and have broad therapeutic applicability for neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, knowing all the mechanisms that govern the self-renewal, differentiation, and cell signaling of NSC is necessary. This review will address some of these aspects, including the role of growth and transcription factors, epigenetic modulators, microRNAs, and extracellular matrix components. Furthermore, differentiation and transdifferentiation processes will be addressed as therapeutic strategies showing their significance for stem cell-based therapy.

Strategic use of organoids and organs-on-chip as biomimetic tools.

Organoid development and organ-on-a-chip are technologies based on differentiating stem cells, forming 3D multicellular structures resembling organs and tissues in vivo. Hence, both can be strategically used for disease modeling, drug screening, and host-pathogen studies. In this context, this review highlights the significant advancements in the area, providing technical approaches to organoids and organ-on-a-chip that best imitate in vivo physiology.

Organoids as a novel tool in modelling infectious diseases.

Infectious diseases worldwide affect human health and have important societal impacts. A better understanding of infectious diseases is urgently needed. In vitro and in vivo infection models have brought notable contributions to the current knowledge of these diseases. Organoids are multicellular culture systems resembling tissue architecture and function, recapitulating many characteristics of human disease and elucidating mechanisms of host-infectious agent interactions in the respiratory and gastrointestinal systems, the central nervous system and the skin. Here, we discuss the applicability of the organoid technology for modeling pathogenesis, host response and features, which can be explored for the development of preventive and therapeutic treatments.

Tissue-resident glial cells associate with tumoral vasculature and promote cancer progression.

Cancer cells are embedded within the tissue and interact dynamically with its components during cancer progression. Understanding the contribution of cellular components within the tumor microenvironment is crucial for the success of therapeutic applications. Here, we reveal the presence of perivascular GFAP+/Plp1+ cells within the tumor microenvironment. Using in vivo inducible Cre/loxP mediated systems, we demonstrated that these cells derive from tissue-resident Schwann cells. Genetic ablation of endogenous Schwann cells slowed down tumor growth and angiogenesis. Schwann cell-specific depletion also induced a boost in the immune surveillance by increasing tumor-infiltrating anti-tumor lymphocytes, while reducing immune-suppressor cells. In humans, a retrospective in silico analysis of tumor biopsies revealed that increased expression of Schwann cell-related genes within melanoma was associated with improved survival. Collectively, our study suggests that Schwann cells regulate tumor progression, indicating that manipulation of Schwann cells may provide a valuable tool to improve cancer patients' outcomes.

Decoding epigenetic cell signaling in neuronal differentiation.

Neurogenesis is the process by which new neurons are generated in the brain. Neural stem cells (NSCs) are differentiated into neurons, which are integrated into the neural network. Nowadays, pluripotent stem cells, multipotent stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem cells can be artificially differentiated into neurons utilizing several techniques. Specific transcriptional profiles from NSCs during differentiation are frequently used to approach and observe phenotype alteration and functional determination of neurons. In this context, the role of non-coding RNA, transcription factors and epigenetic changes in neuronal development and differentiation has gained importance. Epigenetic elucidation has become a field of intense research due to distinct patterns of normal conditions and different neurodegenerative disorders, which can be explored to develop new diagnostic methods or gene therapies. In this review, we discuss the complexity of transcription factors, non-coding RNAs, and extracellular vesicles that are responsible for guiding and coordinating neural development.

The role of neurogenesis in neurorepair after ischemic stroke.

Stroke consists of an abrupt reduction of cerebral blood flow resulting in hypoxia that triggers an excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation. After the ischemic process, neural precursor cells present in the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricle and subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus proliferate and migrate towards the lesion, contributing to the brain repair. The neurogenesis is induced by signal transduction pathways, growth factors, attractive factors for neuroblasts, transcription factors, pro and anti-inflammatory mediators and specific neurotransmissions. However, this endogenous neurogenesis occurs slowly and does not allow a complete restoration of brain function. Despite that, understanding the mechanisms of neurogenesis could improve the therapeutic strategies for brain repair. This review presents the current knowledge about brain repair process after stroke and the perspectives regarding the development of promising therapies that aim to improve neurogenesis and its potential to form new neural networks.

Neural stem cell niche heterogeneity.

In mammals, new neurons can be generated from neural stem cells in specific regions of the adult brain. Neural stem cells are characterized by their abilities to differentiate into all neural lineages and to self-renew. The specific microenvironments regulating neural stem cells, commonly referred to as neurogenic niches, comprise multiple cell populations whose precise contributions are under active current exploration. Understanding the cross-talk between neural stem cells and their niche components is essential for the development of therapies against neurological disorders in which neural stem cells function is altered. In this review, we describe and discuss recent studies that identified novel components in the neural stem cell niche. These discoveries bring new concepts to the field. Here, we evaluate these recent advances that change our understanding of the neural stem cell niche heterogeneity and its influence on neural stem cell function.

C(3)1-TAg in C57BL/6 J background as a model to study mammary tumor development.

Diagnosis and prognosis of breast cancer is based on disease staging identified through histopathological and molecular biology techniques. Animal models are used to gain mechanistic insights into the development of breast cancer. C(3)1-TAg is a genetically engineered mouse model that develops mammary cancer. However, carcinogenesis caused by this transgene was characterized in the Friend Virus B (FVB) background. As most genetic studies are done in mice with C57BL/6 J background, we aimed to define the histological alterations in C3(1)-TAg C57BL/6 J animals. Our results showed that C3(1)-TAg animals with C57BL/6 J background develop solid-basaloid adenoid cystic carcinomas with increased fibrosis, decreased area of adipocytes, and a high proliferative index, which are triple-negative for progesterone, estrogen, and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) receptors. Our results also revealed that tumor development is slower in the C57BL/6 J background when compared with the FVB strain, providing a better model to study the different stages in breast cancer progression.

Ablation of sensory nerves favours melanoma progression.

The tumour mass is composed not only of heterogeneous neoplastic cells, but also a variety of other components that may affect cancer cells behaviour. The lack of detailed knowledge about all the constituents of the tumour microenvironment restricts the design of effective treatments. Nerves have been reported to contribute to the growth and maintenance of numerous tissues. The effects of sensory innervations on tumour growth remain unclear. Here, by using state-of-the-art techniques, including Cre/loxP technologies, confocal microscopy, in vivo-tracing and chemical denervation, we revealed the presence of sensory nerves infiltrating within the melanoma microenvironment, and affecting cancer progression. Strikingly, melanoma growth in vivo was accelerated following genetic ablation or chemical denervation of sensory nerves. In humans, a retrospective analysis of melanoma patients revealed that increased expression of genes related to sensory nerves in tumours was associated with better clinical outcomes. These findings suggest that sensory innervations counteract melanoma progression. The emerging knowledge from this research provides a novel target in the tumour microenvironment for therapeutic benefit in cancer patients.

Foxn1 and Prkdc genes are important for testis function: evidence from nude and scid adult mice.

Mutations in Foxn1 and Prkdc genes lead to nude and severe combined immunodeficiency (scid) phenotypes, respectively. Besides being immunodeficient, previous reports have shown that nude mice have lower gonadotropins and testosterone levels, while scid mice present increased pachytene spermatocyte (PS) apoptosis. Therefore, these specific features make them important experimental models for understanding Foxn1 and Prkdc roles in reproduction. Hence, we conducted an investigation of the testicular function in nude and scid BALB/c adult male mice and significant differences were observed, especially in Leydig cell (LC) parameters. Although the differences were more pronounced in nude mice, both immunodeficient strains presented a larger number of LC, whereas its cellular volume was smaller in comparison to the wild type. Besides these alterations in LC, we also observed differences in androgen receptor and steroidogenic enzyme expression in nude and scid mice, suggesting the importance of Foxn1 and Prkdc genes in androgen synthesis. Specifically in scid mice, we found a smaller meiotic index, which represents the number of round spermatids per PS, indicating a greater cell loss during meiosis, as previously described in the literature. In addition and for the first time, Foxn1 was identified in the testis, being expressed in LC, whereas DNA-PKc (the protein produced by Prkdc) was observed in LC and Sertoli cells. Taken together, our results show that the changes in LC composition added to the higher expression of steroidogenesis-related genes in nude mice and imply that Foxn1 transcription factor may be associated to androgen production regulation, while Prkdc expression is also important for the meiotic process.

Lipid dynamics in LPS-induced neuroinflammation by DESI-MS imaging.

It is well-established that bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) can promote neuroinflammation through receptor Toll-like 4 activation and induces sickness behavior in mice. This phenomenon triggers changes in membranes lipid dynamics to promote the intracellular cell signaling. Desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (DESI-MS) is a powerful technique that can be used to image the distribution of lipids in the brain tissue directly. In this work, we characterize the LPS-induced neuroinflammation and the lipid dynamics in C57BL/6 mice at 3 and 24 h after LPS injection. We have observed that intraperitoneal administration of LPS (5 mg/kg body weight) induces sickness behavior and triggers a peripheral and cerebral increase of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine levels after 3 h, but only IL-10 was upregulated after 24 h. Morphological analysis of hypothalamus, cortex and hippocampus demonstrated that microglial activation was present after 24 h of LPS injection, but not at 3 h. DESI-MS revealed a total of 14 lipids significantly altered after 3 and 24 h and as well as their neuroanatomical distribution. Multivariate statistical analyzes have shown that ions associated with phosphatidylethanolamine [PE(38:4)] and docosatetraenoic acid [FA (22:4)] could be used as biomarkers to distinguish samples from the control or LPS treated groups. Finally, our data demonstrated that monitoring cerebral lipids dynamics and its neuroanatomical distribution can be helpful to understand sickness behavior and microglial activation after LPS administration.

MicroRNAs in Sertoli cells: implications for spermatogenesis and fertility.

In recent decades, infertility has been considered a major widespread public health issue of very high concern. Currently, almost 50% of infertility cases are due to male factors, including semen disorders, obstructions, cryptorchidism, varicocele and testicular failures, which can occur due to malfunctions in both somatic and germ cells. In this context, besides other approaches, different miRNAs have been used as biomarkers for the diagnosis of male infertility, with different pathologic conditions such as Sertoli cell-only syndrome, mixed atrophy, and germ cell arrest. However, most studies related to male fertility do not point out the functions and cell targets of the described miRNAs. Initial investigations using experimental assays in murine and porcine models were performed, providing the first evidence of the influence of miRNAs on Sertoli cell function including, for instance, proliferation, maturation and hormone responses of these cells. The aim of this mini-review is therefore to summarize our present knowledge of this relevant subject and to highlight the importance of future investigations concerning the miRNA influence in the control of Sertoli cells, spermatogenesis and male fertility.

Enhancement of Bone Healing by Local Administration of Carbon Nanotubes Functionalized with Sodium Hyaluronate in Rat Tibiae.

It has been reported that carbon nanotubes (CNTs) serve as nucleation sites for the deposition of bone matrix and cell proliferation. Here, we evaluated the effects of multi-walled CNTs (MWCNTs) on bone repair of rat tibiae. Furthermore, because sodium hyaluronate (HY) accelerates bone restoration, we associated CNTs with HY (HY-MWCNTs) in an attempt to boost bone repair. The bone defect was created by a 1.6-mm-diameter drill. After 7 and 14 days, tibiae were processed for histological and morphometric analyses. Immunohistochemistry was used to evaluate the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in bone defects. Expression of osteocalcin (OCN), bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2), and collagen I (Col I) was assessed by real-time PCR. Histomorphometric analysis showed a similar increase in the percentage of bone trabeculae in tibia bone defects treated with HY and HY-MWCNTs, and both groups presented more organized and thicker bone trabeculae than nontreated defects. Tibiae treated with MWCNTs or HY- MWCNTs showed a higher expression of VEGF. Treatment with MWCNTs or HY-MWCNTs increased the expression of molecules involved in the bone repair process, such as OCN and BMP-2. Also, HY- and MWCNT-treated tibiae had an increased expression of Col I. Thus, it is tempting to conclude that CNTs associated or not with other materials such as HY emerged as a promising biomaterial for bone tissue engineering.

Immobilization of Moniliella spathulata R25L270 Lipase on Ionic, Hydrophobic and Covalent Supports: Functional Properties and Hydrolysis of Sardine Oil.

The oleaginous yeast Moniliella spathulata R25L270 was the first yeast able to grow and produce extracellular lipase using Macaúba (Acrocomia aculeate) cake as substrate. The novel lipase was recently identified, and presented promising features for biotechnological applications. The M. spathulata R25L270 lipase efficiently hydrolyzed vegetable and animal oils, and showed selectivity for generating cis-5,8,11,15,17-eicosapentaenoic acid from sardine oil. The enzyme can act in a wide range of temperatures (25-48 °C) and pH (6.5-8.4). The present study deals with the immobilization of M. spathulata R25L270 lipase on hydrophobic, covalent and ionic supports to select the most active biocatalyst capable to obtain omega-3 fatty acids (PUFA) from sardine oil. Nine immobilized agarose derivatives were prepared and biochemically characterized for thermostability, pH stability and catalytic properties (KM and Vmax). Ionic supports improved the enzyme-substrate affinity; however, it was not an effective strategy to increase the M. spathulata R25L270 lipase stability against pH and temperature. Covalent support resulted in a biocatalyst with decreased activity, but high thermostability. The enzyme was most stabilized when immobilized on hydrophobic supports, especially Octyl-Sepharose. Compared with the free enzyme, the half-life of the Octyl-Sepharose derivative at 60 °C increased 10-fold, and lipase stability under acidic conditions was achieved. The Octyl-Sepharose derivative was selected to obtain omega-3 fatty acids from sardine oil, and the maximal enzyme selectivity was achieved at pH 5.0.

The insulin receptor translocates to the nucleus to regulate cell proliferation in liver.

UNLABELLED: Insulin's metabolic effects in the liver are widely appreciated, but insulin's ability to act as a hepatic mitogen is less well understood. Because the insulin receptor (IR) can traffic to the nucleus, and Ca(2+) signals within the nucleus regulate cell proliferation, we investigated whether insulin's mitogenic effects result from activation of Ca(2+)-signaling pathways by IRs within the nucleus. Insulin-induced increases in Ca(2+) and cell proliferation depended upon clathrin- and caveolin-dependent translocation of the IR to the nucleus, as well as upon formation of inositol 1,4,5,-trisphosphate (InsP3) in the nucleus, whereas insulin's metabolic effects did not depend on either of these events. Moreover, liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy also depended upon the formation of InsP3 in the nucleus, but not the cytosol, whereas hepatic glucose metabolism was not affected by buffering InsP3 in the nucleus. CONCLUSION: These findings provide evidence that insulin's mitogenic effects are mediated by a subpopulation of IRs that traffic to the nucleus to locally activate InsP3 -dependent Ca(2+)-signaling pathways. The steps along this signaling pathway reveal a number of potential targets for therapeutic modulation of liver growth in health and disease.

Macaúba (Acrocomia aculeata) cake from biodiesel processing: a low-cost substrate to produce lipases from Moniliella spathulata R25L270 with potential application in the oleochemical industry.

BACKGROUND: Biodiesel industry wastes were evaluated as supplements for lipase production by Moniliella spathulata R25L270, which is newly identified yeast with great lipolytic potential. Macaúba cake (MC), used for the first time in this work as inducer to produce lipases, and residual oil (RO) were mixed to maximise enzyme production. The lipase secreted was biochemically characterised. RESULTS: The best ratio for the mixture (MC:RO) was 0.66:0.34 and the fitted values for lipase activity and total protein concentration were 0.98 U mL(-1) and 0.356 mg mL(-1), respectively. Maximum activity obtained (2.47 U mL(-1)) was achieved at 31.5°C and pH 6.7, and the enzyme was stable in this condition. A novel enzyme was purified and identified for the first time by mass spectrometry. The lipase efficiently hydrolysed different natural oils and exhibited selectivity in the production of eicosapentaenoic acid from fish oil. CONCLUSION: The use of MC and RO as a supplement to produce the new lipase from M. spathulata R25L270 may be one alternative for reducing lipase production costs and simultaneously adding value to biodiesel industry residues. The potential application of the lipase in the oleochemical industry was demonstrated by its pH and temperature stabilities and selective hydrolysis.

Human adult stem cells from diverse origins: an overview from multiparametric immunophenotyping to clinical applications.

Stem cells are known for their capacity to self-renew and differentiate into at least one specialized cell type. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) were isolated initially from bone marrow but are now known to exist in all vascularized organ or tissue in adults. MSCs are particularly relevant for therapy due to their simplicity of isolation and cultivation. The International Society for Cellular Therapy (ISCT) has proposed a set of standards to define hMSCs for laboratory investigations and preclinical studies: adherence to plastic in standard culture conditions; in vitro differentiation into osteoblasts, adipocytes, and chondroblasts; specific surface antigen expression in which ≥95% of the cells express the antigens recognized by CD105, CD73, and CD90, with the same cells lacking (≤2% positive) the antigens CD45, CD34, CD14 or CD11b, CD79a or CD19, and HLA-DR. In this review we will take an historical overview of how umbilical cord blood, bone marrow, adipose-derived, placental and amniotic fluid, and menstrual blood stem cells, the major sources of human MSC, can be obtained, identified and how they are being used in clinical trials to cure and treat a very broad range of conditions, including heart, hepatic, and neurodegenerative diseases. An overview of protocols for differentiation into hepatocytes, cardiomyocytes, neuronal, adipose, chondrocytes, and osteoblast cells are highlighted. We also discuss a new source of stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells) and some pathways, which are common to MSCs in maintaining their pluripotent state.

Cardiomyocyte-secreted acetylcholine is required for maintenance of homeostasis in the heart.

Heart activity and long-term function are regulated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the nervous system. Parasympathetic neurons have received increased attention recently because acetylcholine (ACh) has been shown to play protective roles in heart disease. However, parasympathetic innervation is sparse in the heart, raising the question of how cholinergic signaling regulates cardiomyocytes. We hypothesized that non-neuronal secretion of ACh from cardiomyocytes plays a role in cholinergic regulation of cardiac activity. To test this possibility, we eliminated secretion of ACh exclusively from cardiomyocytes by targeting the vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT). We find that lack of cardiomyocyte-secreted ACh disturbs the regulation of cardiac activity and causes cardiomyocyte remodeling. Mutant mice present normal hemodynamic parameters under nonstressful conditions; however, following exercise, their heart rate response is increased. Moreover, hearts from mutant mice present increased oxidative stress, altered calcium signaling, remodeling, and hypertrophy. Hence, without cardiomyocyte-derived ACh secretion, hearts from mutant mice show signs of imbalanced autonomic activity consistent with decreased cholinergic drive. These unexpected results suggest that cardiomyocyte-derived ACh is required for maintenance of cardiac homeostasis and regulates critical signaling pathways necessary to maintain normal heart activity. We propose that this non-neuronal source of ACh boosts parasympathetic cholinergic signaling to counterbalance sympathetic activity regulating multiple aspects of heart physiology.