An integrated approach to elucidate the intra-viral and viral-cellular protein interaction networks of a gamma-herpesvirus.

Genome-wide yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) screens were conducted to elucidate the molecular functions of open reading frames (ORFs) encoded by murine γ-herpesvirus 68 (MHV-68). A library of 84 MHV-68 genes and gene fragments was generated in a Gateway entry plasmid and transferred to Y2H vectors. All possible pair-wise interactions between viral proteins were tested in the Y2H assay, resulting in the identification of 23 intra-viral protein-protein interactions (PPIs). Seventy percent of the interactions between viral proteins were confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation experiments. To systematically investigate virus-cellular protein interactions, the MHV-68 Y2H constructs were screened against a cellular cDNA library, yielding 243 viral-cellular PPIs involving 197 distinct cellar proteins. Network analyses indicated that cellular proteins targeted by MHV-68 had more partners in the cellular PPI network and were located closer to each other than expected by chance. Taking advantage of this observation, we scored the cellular proteins based on their network distances from other MHV-68-interacting proteins and segregated them into high (Y2H-HP) and low priority/not-scored (Y2H-LP/NS) groups. Significantly more genes from Y2H-HP altered MHV-68 replication when their expression was inhibited with siRNAs (53% of genes from Y2H-HP, 21% of genes from Y2H-LP/NS, and 16% of genes randomly chosen from the human PPI network; p<0.05). Enriched Gene Ontology (GO) terms in the Y2H-HP group included regulation of apoptosis, protein kinase cascade, post-translational protein modification, transcription from RNA polymerase II promoter, and IκB kinase/NFκB cascade. Functional validation assays indicated that PCBP1, which interacted with MHV-68 ORF34, may be involved in regulating late virus gene expression in a manner consistent with the effects of its viral interacting partner. Our study integrated Y2H screening with multiple functional validation approaches to create γ-herpes viral-viral and viral-cellular protein interaction networks.

Fas-Activated Mitochondrial Apoptosis Culls Stalled Embryonic Stem Cells to Promote Differentiation.

The intrinsic (mitochondrial) apoptotic pathway is a conserved cell death program crucial for eliminating superfluous, damaged, or incorrectly specified cells, and the multi-domain pro-death BCL-2 family proteins BAX and BAK are required for its activation. In response to internal damage or developmental signals, BAX and/or BAK permeabilize the mitochondrial outer membrane, resulting in cytochrome c release and activation of effector caspases such as Caspase-3 (Casp3). While the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway plays a critical role during late embryonic development in mammals, its role during early development remains controversial. Here, we show that Bax(-/-)Bak(-/-) murine embryonic stem cells (ESCs) display defects during the exit from pluripotency, both in culture and during teratoma formation. Specifically, we find that when ESCs are stimulated to differentiate, a subpopulation fails to do so and instead upregulates FAS in a p53-dependent manner to trigger Bax/Bak-dependent apoptosis. Blocking this apoptotic pathway prevents the removal of these poorly differentiated cells, resulting in the retention of cells that have not exited pluripotency. Taken together, our results provide further evidence for heterogeneity in the potential of ESCs to successfully differentiate and reveal a novel role for apoptosis in promoting efficient ESC differentiation by culling cells that are slow to exit pluripotency.

Blocking the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway preserves motor neuron viability and function in a mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Apoptosis of motor neurons is a well-documented feature in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and related motor neuron diseases (MNDs). However, the role of apoptosis in the pathogenesis of these diseases remains unresolved. One possibility is that the affected motor neurons only succumb to apoptosis once they have exhausted functional capacity. If true, blocking apoptosis should confer no therapeutic benefit. To directly investigate this idea, we tested whether tissue-specific deletion in the mouse CNS of BCL2-associated X protein (BAX) and BCL2-homologous antagonist/killer (BAK), 2 proapoptotic BCL-2 family proteins that together represent an essential gateway to the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, would protect against motor neuron degeneration. We found that neuronal deletion of Bax and Bak in a mouse model of familial ALS not only halted neuronal loss, but prevented axonal degeneration, symptom onset, weight loss, and paralysis and extended survival. These results show that motor neurons damaged in ALS activate the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway early in the disease process and that apoptotic signaling directly contributes to neuromuscular degeneration and neuronal dysfunction. Hence, inhibiting apoptosis upstream of mitochondrial permeabilization represents a possible therapeutic strategy for preserving functional motor neurons in ALS and other MNDs.