Cntnap4 differentially contributes to GABAergic and dopaminergic synaptic transmission.

Although considerable evidence suggests that the chemical synapse is a lynchpin underlying affective disorders, how molecular insults differentially affect specific synaptic connections remains poorly understood. For instance, Neurexin 1a and 2 (NRXN1 and NRXN2) and CNTNAP2 (also known as CASPR2), all members of the neurexin superfamily of transmembrane molecules, have been implicated in neuropsychiatric disorders. However, their loss leads to deficits that have been best characterized with regard to their effect on excitatory cells. Notably, other disease-associated genes such as BDNF and ERBB4 implicate specific interneuron synapses in psychiatric disorders. Consistent with this, cortical interneuron dysfunction has been linked to epilepsy, schizophrenia and autism. Using a microarray screen that focused upon synapse-associated molecules, we identified Cntnap4 (contactin associated protein-like 4, also known as Caspr4) as highly enriched in developing murine interneurons. In this study we show that Cntnap4 is localized presynaptically and its loss leads to a reduction in the output of cortical parvalbumin (PV)-positive GABAergic (γ-aminobutyric acid producing) basket cells. Paradoxically, the loss of Cntnap4 augments midbrain dopaminergic release in the nucleus accumbens. In Cntnap4 mutant mice, synaptic defects in these disease-relevant neuronal populations are mirrored by sensory-motor gating and grooming endophenotypes; these symptoms could be pharmacologically reversed, providing promise for therapeutic intervention in psychiatric disorders.

Detection of evoked acetylcholine release in mouse brain slices.

The study of transmitter interactions in reward and motor pathways in the brain, including the striatum, requires methodology to detect stimulus-driven neurotransmitter release events. Such methods exist for dopamine, and have contributed to the understanding of local and behavioral factors that regulate dopamine release. However, factors that regulate release of another key transmitter in these pathways, acetylcholine (ACh), are unresolved, in part because of limited temporal and spatial resolution of current detection methods. We have optimized a voltammetric method for detection of local stimulus-evoked ACh release using enzyme-coated carbon-fiber microelectrodes and fast-scan cyclic voltammetry. These electrodes are based on the detection of H2O2 generated by the actions of acetylcholine esterase and choline oxidase, and reliably respond to ACh in a concentration-dependent manner. Methods for enzyme coating were optimized for mechanical stability that allowed for their use in ex vivo brain slices. We report here the first quantitative assessment of extracellular ACh concentration after local electrical stimulation in dorsal striatum in slices from control mice. The selective detection of ACh under these conditions was confirmed by showing that the response detected in the control slices was absent in slices from mice bred to lack ACh synthesis in the forebrain. These electrodes represent a new tool to study ACh and ACh-dopamine interactions with micrometer spatial resolution.

Lepidoptera (Crambidae, Noctuidae, and Pyralidae) Injury to Corn Containing Single and Pyramided Bt Traits, and Blended or Block Refuge, in the Southern United States.

Fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae); corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea Boddie (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae); southwestern corn borer, Diatraea grandiosella Dyar (Lepidoptera: Crambidae); sugarcane borer, Diatraea saccharalis F. (Lepidoptera: Crambidae); and lesser cornstalk borer, Elasmopalpus lignosellus Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), are lepidopteran pests of corn, Zea mays L., in the southern United States. Blended refuge for transgenic plants expressing the insecticidal protein derivative from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) has recently been approved as an alternative resistance management strategy in the northern United States. We conducted a two-year study with 39 experiments across 12 states in the southern United States to evaluate plant injury from these five species of Lepidoptera to corn expressing Cry1F and Cry1Ab, as both single and pyramided traits, a pyramid of Cry1Ab×Vip3Aa20, and a pyramid of Cry1F×Cry1Ab plus non-Bt in a blended refuge. Leaf injury and kernel damage from corn earworm and fall armyworm, and stalking tunneling by southwestern corn borer, were similar in Cry1F×Cry1Ab plants compared with the Cry1F×Cry1Ab plus non-Bt blended refuge averaged across five-plant clusters. When measured on an individual plant basis, leaf injury, kernel damage, stalk tunneling (southwestern corn borer), and dead or injured plants (lesser cornstalk borer) were greater in the blended non-Bt refuge plants compared to Cry1F×Cry1Ab plants in the non-Bt and pyramided Cry1F×Cry1Ab blended refuge treatment. When non-Bt blended refuge plants were compared to a structured refuge of non-Bt plants, no significant difference was detected in leaf injury, kernel damage, or stalk tunneling (southwestern corn borer). Plant stands in the non-Bt and pyramided Cry1F×Cry1Ab blended refuge treatment had more stalk tunneling from sugarcane borer and plant death from lesser cornstalk borer compared to a pyramided Cry1F×Cry1Ab structured refuge treatment. Hybrid plants containing Cry1F×Cry1Ab within the pyramided Cry1F×Cry1Ab blended refuge treatment had significantly less kernel damage than non-Bt structured refuge treatments. Both single and pyramided Bt traits were effective against southwestern corn borer, sugarcane borer, and lesser cornstalk borer.

Asexual reproduction in a sipunculan worm.

The sipunculan worm Aspidosiphon brocki reproduces asexually by transverse fision into two unequal parts, the smaller part comprising the posterior fifth of the animal. Prior to fission each part regenerates the structures essential to the formation of a new individual. The smaller posterior part (daughter) regenerates an anterior body, including introvert, anterior gut, retractor muscles, and nephridia, whereas the larger anterior part (parent) regenerates only the posterior body wall.

Ascorbate regulation and its neuroprotective role in the brain.

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) occurs physiologically as the ascorbate anion: a water-soluble antioxidant that is found throughout the body. However, despite the high, homeostatically regulated levels of brain ascorbate, its specific functions in the CNS are only beginning to be elucidated. Certainly, it acts as part of the intracellular antioxidant network, and as such is normally neuroprotective. There is also evidence that it acts as a neuromodulator. A possibly unique role it might have is as an antioxidant in the brain extracellular microenvironment, where its concentration is modulated by glutamate-ascorbate heteroexchange at glutamate uptake sites. Ongoing studies of ascorbate and glutamate transporters should lead to rapid progress in understanding ascorbate regulation and function.

Impact of Lepidoptera (Crambidae, Noctuidae, and Pyralidae) Pests on Corn Containing Pyramided Bt Traits and a Blended Refuge in the Southern United States.

Blended refuge for transgenic plants expressing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins has been approved in the northern United States as a resistance management strategy alternative to a structured refuge. A three-year study (2012-2014) was conducted with 54 trials across nine states in the southern United States to evaluate plant injury from lepidopteran pests of corn and yield in a corn hybrid expressing Cry1F × Cry1Ab × Vip3Aa20 (Pioneer Brand Optimum Leptra) planted as a pure stand and in refuge blends of 5, 10, and 20% in both early and late plantings. Injury by corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea Boddie (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), was generally proportional to the percentage of non-Bt corn within each refuge blend. Across locations, ear injury in plots with 100% Cry1F × Cry1Ab × Vip3Aa20 (Optimum Leptra) corn ranged from no injury to a maximum of 0.42 cm(2) per ear in Mississippi in 2013. Leaf injury ratings in 100% non-Bt plots in early and late planted trials in 2014 were 86- and 70-fold greater than in 100% Cry1F × Cry1Ab × Vip3Aa20 (Optimum Leptra) plots. Plants in plots with blended refuges had significantly greater leaf injury in 2012 (5, 10, and 20% refuge blends), in the early-planted corn in 2013 (10 and 20% only), and in both early- and late-planted corn in 2014 (20% only) as compared with leaf injury in a pure stand of Cry1F × Cry1Ab × Vip3Aa20 (Optimum Leptra) seen during these years. Corn ears in plots with blended refuges also had significantly greater area of kernels injured in 2012 (5, 10, and 20%), in early- and late-planted corn in 2013 (5, 10, and 20%), and in early (10 and 20% only)- and late-planted corn (5, 10, and 20%) in 2014 as compared with ear injury in a pure stand of Cry1F × Cry1Ab × Vip3Aa20 (Optimum Leptra) seen during these years. Infestations of southwestern corn borer, Diatraea grandiosella Dyar (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), were also significantly reduced by Cry1F × Cry1Ab × Vip3Aa20 (Optimum Leptra). Despite these differences in injury, yield averaged across locations varied among refuge blends only in the late-planted trials in 2013, with greater yields in the 0% refuge blend than in the 20% blend; however, when examining yield separately by location, only two of nine locations had higher yields in the 100% Bt plots than in any of the blended refuge plots. As a complement to studying the contribution of blended refuge to delaying resistance, quantifying injury and yield in a range of refuge blends is a necessary step to provide management information on the range of lepidopteran pests that occur in the southern United States.

Novel Ca2+ dependence and time course of somatodendritic dopamine release: substantia nigra versus striatum.

Somatodendritic release of dopamine (DA) in midbrain represents a novel form of intercellular signaling that inherently differs from classic axon-terminal release. Here we report marked differences in the Ca(2+) dependence and time course of stimulated increases in extracellular DA concentration ([DA](o)) between the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) and striatum. Evoked [DA](o) was monitored with carbon-fiber microelectrodes and fast-scan cyclic voltammetry in brain slices. In striatum, pulse-train stimulation (10 Hz, 30 pulses) failed to evoke detectable [DA](o) in 0 or 0.5 mm Ca(2+) but elicited robust release in 1.5 mm Ca(2+). Release increased progressively in 2.0 and 2.4 mm Ca(2+). In sharp contrast, evoked [DA](o) in SNc was nearly half-maximal in 0 mm Ca(2+) and increased significantly in 0.5 mm Ca(2+). Surprisingly, somatodendritic release was maximal in 1.5 mm Ca(2+), with no change in 2.0 or 2.4 mm Ca(2+). Additionally, after single-pulse stimulation, evoked [DA](o) in striatum reached a maximum (t(max)) in <200 msec, whereas in SNc, [DA](o) continued to rise for 2-3 sec. Similarly, the time for [DA](o) to decay to 50% of maximum (t(50)) was 12-fold longer in SNc than striatum. A delayed t(max) in SNc compared with striatum persisted when DA uptake was inhibited by GBR-12909 and D(2) autoreceptors were blocked by sulpiride, although these agents eliminated the difference in t(50). Together, these data implicate different release mechanisms in striatum and SNc, with minimal Ca(2+) required to trigger prolonged DA release in SNc. Coupled with limited uptake, prolonged somatodendritic release would facilitate DA-mediated volume transmission in midbrain.

Neuroprotective adaptations in hibernation: therapeutic implications for ischemia-reperfusion, traumatic brain injury and neurodegenerative diseases.

Brains of hibernating mammals are protected against a variety of insults that are detrimental to humans and other nonhibernating species. Such protection is associated with a number of physiological adaptations including hypothermia, increased antioxidant defense, metabolic arrest, leukocytopenia, immunosuppression, and hypocoagulation. It is intriguing that similar manipulations provide considerable protection as experimental treatments for central nervous system injury. This review focuses on neuroprotective mechanisms employed during hibernation that may offer novel approaches in the treatment of stroke, traumatic brain injury, and neurodegenerative diseases in humans.

Extracellular alkaline-acid pH shifts evoked by iontophoresis of glutamate and aspartate in turtle cerebellum.

The effect of glutamate and aspartate iontophoresis on extracellular pH was investigated in the turtle cerebellum in vitro. Both amino acids produced a rapid alkaline transient, typically followed by a prolonged acidification. These responses could be evoked in all layers of the cerebellum. Transition from bicarbonate to N-2-hydroxyethylpiperazine-N'-2-ethanesulfonic acid-buffered media amplified the pH shifts. Similar alkaline-acid transients could be evoked in the molecular layer by electrical stimulation of the parallel fibers or the ipsilateral peduncle, or by superfusion of glutamate or aspartate. However, no alkaline shifts were evoked in the granular layer by either parallel fiber or peduncle stimulation. In contrast, the iontophoretically induced alkaline shifts were largest in the granular layer. Compared with the stimulus-evoked alkalinizations, the iontophoretic alkaline shifts were relatively insensitive to Mn2+ or Cd2+. These data suggest that the activity-dependent alkalinization of brain extracellular space is generated by a bicarbonate-independent mechanism related to excitatory synaptic transmission. The results are consistent with a flux of hydrogen ions through cationic channels, but do not support a direct role for voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels. In view of the sensitivity of ion channels to changes in external pH, and the magnitude of the amino acid-induced pH shifts, these results indicate that extracellular pH could play an important modulatory role in excitatory synaptic transmission.

Glutamate- and aspartate-induced extracellular potassium and calcium shifts and their relation to those of kainate, quisqualate and N-methyl-D-aspartate in the isolated turtle cerebellum.

Ion-selective microelectrodes can be used to evaluate the characteristics and laminar distribution of excitatory amino acid agonist-induced K+ and Ca2+ shifts in the extracellular environment of brain cells. This report describes the pattern of K+ increases and Ca2+ decreases elicited by glutamate and aspartate at 100 microns intervals in the isolated turtle cerebellum. These responses were compared to ion shifts evoked by kainate, quisqualate and N-methyl-D-aspartate. Glutamate and aspartate produced indistinguishable laminar patterns of ion shifts, with the greatest [K+]o and [Ca2+]o shifts in the granular layer. The average maximum granular and molecular layer increases in [K+]o were, respectively, 130% and 24% larger than the increase in the Purkinje cell layer. Kainate-induced increases in [K+]o also followed this granular greater than molecular greater than Purkinje cell layer pattern; however, the corresponding [Ca2+]o decreases were smaller and more variable. Quisqualate-evoked ion shifts in the molecular layer closely mimicked the shape of glutamate- and aspartate-induced responses. In the granular layer, however, quisqualate caused little ion change during iontophoresis followed by large [K+]o and [Ca+]o shifts after the end of the pulse. The minimal ion shifts induced during quisqualate application in the granular layer gave this agonist the distinction of being the only agent tested to have its greatest direct effect in the molecular layer. N-Methyl-D-aspartate caused large, two-phase [K+]o and [Ca2+]o shifts in the granular layer, only small [K+]o rises in the Purkinje cell and ventral molecular layers, and no response in the dorsal molecular layer. The lack of similarity between glutamate- and aspartate-induced ion shifts in the granular layer and those of any one agonist demonstrate the mixed agonist action of glutamate and aspartate in the cerebellum. These studies provide new information about the dynamics of excitatory amino acid receptor activation that is complementary to autoradiographic receptor mapping data and to single cell electrophysiological studies.

Diffusion coefficients of neurotransmitters and their metabolites in brain extracellular fluid space.

Diffusion coefficients of catecholamine neurotransmitters, their metabolites and related species was measured in brain extracellular fluid using in vivo voltammetric techniques. Nanoliter volumes of the species were pressure-ejected into the rat caudate nucleus and their concentration profiles were determined at nearby voltammetric detector electrodes. Thorough testing was carried out to show that the present methodology gave results which agreed with brain diffusion coefficients measured previously by ion-selective microelectrode techniques. All of the species which are anionic at pH 7.4 have brain diffusion coefficients about one-third of their solution counterparts in accord with earlier studies of diffusion in tortuous media. However, the brain diffusion coefficients of all the cation species are about three-times slower than those of the anions. This phenomenon is believed to be caused by ion binding with the polyanionic glycosaminoglycans and related species in brain tissue. In vitro model experiments lend support to this interpretation. This new information on biogenic amines and their metabolites provides meaningful predictions of the spatio-temporal concentration distribution of these species in the extracellular fluid.

Birth order and fluctuating asymmetry: a first look.

We investigated the hypothesis that maternal immunoreactivity to male-specific features of the foetus can increase developmental instability. We predicted that the participants' number of older brothers would be positively related to the fluctuating asymmetry of ten bilateral morphological traits. The participants were 40 adult male psychiatric patients and 31 adult male hospital employees. Consistent with the hypothesis, the participants' number of older brothers--but not number of older sisters, younger brothers or younger sisters--was positively associated with fluctuating asymmetry. The patients had significantly larger fluctuating asymmetry scores and tended to have more older brothers than the employees, but the positive relationship between the number of older brothers and fluctuating asymmetry was observed in both groups.

Gender differences in cerebral ascorbate levels and ascorbate loss in ischemia.

Ascorbate and glutathione (GSH) are the primary water-soluble antioxidants in the CNS. Oxidative stress, sometimes indicated by loss of these antioxidants, has been linked to several clinical and experimental conditions, including cerebral ischemia. These conditions are also gender-linked, with greater incidence or severity in males than females. To test whether there are gender differences in oxidant/antioxidant regulation, we determined basal levels of ascorbate and GSH in rat brain and their loss after 1 h decapitation ischemia. We found that ascorbate levels in male rat brain were 7-10% higher than in females, depending on region, whereas GSH levels were gender-independent. Significant ascorbate loss (up to 12%) occurred in males during ischemia, with a regional pattern of cerebellum > hippocampus > prefrontal cortex. Loss of ascorbate in females was not significant in any region. By contrast, loss of GSH was significant in both males and females. Greater loss of GSH than ascorbate was in agreement with previous studies and was consistent with loss from enzymatic degradation, as well as oxidation. The significant gender difference in ascorbate loss, as a marker of oxidative stress, supports the hypothesis that inherent differences in oxidant/antioxidant regulation contribute to gender differences in response to ischemia and other pathological conditions.

Long distance pathways of diffusion for dextran along fibre bundles in brain. Relevance for volume transmission.

Texas Red-labelled dextran with a mol. wt of 3000 g mol-1, a marker for the extracellular space, was injected unilaterally into the neostriatum of adult rats (0.3-30 micrograms microliter-1) and its distribution evaluated 1 min to 5 h later. Diffusion in the neuropil was observed with clearance starting after 30 min. After 10-15 min strong labelling along the myelinated fibre bundles was observed in the entire neostriatum. After about 20 min the labelling along the fibres reached into the corpus callosum and the overlaying deep layers of the cerebral cortex. A marked cellular uptake and accumulation of labelled dextran was found in putative perivascular pericytes. Thus, in the living brain preferential extracellular fluid pathways for diffusion exist, especially along fibre bundles, which allow the exchange of chemical signals between two distant regions. These may represent extracellular fluid pathways for volume transmission.

Psychopathy and developmental instability.

Psychopaths are manipulative, impulsive, and callous individuals with long histories of antisocial behavior. Two models have guided the study of psychopathy. One suggests that psychopathy is a psychopathology, i.e., the outcome of defective or perturbed development. A second suggests that psychopathy is a life-history strategy of social defection and aggression that was reproductively viable in the environment of evolutionary adaptedness (EEA). These two models make different predictions with regard to the presence of signs of perturbations or instability in the development of psychopaths. In Study 1, we obtained data on prenatal, perinatal, and neonatal signs of developmental perturbations from the clinical files of 643 nonpsychopathic and 157 psychopathic male offenders. In Study 2, we measured fluctuating asymmetry (FA, a concurrent sign of past developmental perturbations) in 15 psychopathic male offenders, 25 nonpsychopathic male offenders, and 31 male nonoffenders. Psychopathic offenders scored lower than nonpsychopathic offenders on obstetrical problems and FA; both psychopathic and nonpsychopathic offenders scored higher than nonoffenders on FA. The five offenders from Study 2 meeting the most stringent criteria for psychopathy were similar to nonoffenders with regard to FA and had the lowest asymmetry scores among offenders. These results provide no support for psychopathological models of psychopathy and partial support for life-history strategy models.

Dependence of dopamine calibration factors on media Ca2+ and Mg2+ at carbon-fiber microelectrodes used with fast-scan cyclic voltammetry.

Carbon-fiber microelectrodes and voltammetric methods have been used extensively for the detection of dopamine in brain tissue in vivo and in vitro. Voltammetric microelectrodes are often calibrated in non-physiological media, like phosphate-buffered saline, rather than in oxygenated physiological media. Here, we determined dopamine calibration factors (nA microM-1) in several defined solutions for two types of carbon-fiber electrode used with fast-scan cyclic voltammetry. For both electrode types, dopamine calibration factors, and thus electrode sensitivities, were 2-3-fold higher in phosphate- or HEPES-buffered saline than in a bicarbonate-based artificial CSF (ACSF) that reflected that normal ionic composition of brain extracellular fluid. Removal of Ca2+ and Mg2+ from ACSF eliminated this difference. Because extracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]o) can fall under stimulation conditions used to elicit dopamine release, we also evaluated the size of stimulated [Ca2+]o shifts in guinea pig midbrain slices using ion-selective microelectrodes. The [Ca2+]o decreases were less than 100 microM, which was well below the mM decreases observed to alter DA sensitivity. Consequently, calibration data obtained in normal physiological solutions should be valid under conditions of mild stimulation. Moreover, calibration in divalent cation-free media will cause calculated DA levels to be underestimated and should be avoided, unless appropriate for a given experimental paradigm.

Behavior of extracellular K+ and pH in skate (Raja erinacea) cerebellum.

Ion-selective microelectrodes were used to measure extracellular K+ concentrations ([K+]o) and extracellular pH (pHo) in skate cerebellum under resting and stimulated conditions. Consistent with earlier ion analysis of elasmobranch cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), [K+]o was 3.6 +/- 0.1 mM. During parallel fiber activation, [K+]o increased to an upper limit of 12-14 mM with an approximately linear dependence on stimulation frequency (1-20 Hz). Post-stimulus undershoots of 0.1-0.6 mM were seen throughout an animal temperature range of 13-18 degrees C. When stimulation produced spreading depression (SD), [K+]o first increased to about 10 mM, then rose more rapidly to about 30 mM. These observations indicate a K+ ceiling of 10-12 mM in elasmobranchs. This ceiling is the same as that seen in mammals, despite marked differences in CSF composition and osmolality between mammalian and elasmobranch species. Extracellular pH (resting pHo was 7.1-7.3) was also altered during parallel fiber stimulation. An initial alkaline shift and subsequent extracellular acidification were characteristic of the response. These pHo transients were similar to those reported in other preparations, although the alkaline shift was enhanced. This may be attributed to the relatively low buffering capacity of elasmobranch CSF and to summation with a generally smaller acid shift.

Estrogen-dependent modulation of rat brain ascorbate levels and ischemia-induced ascorbate loss.

Brain ascorbate levels in young adult female rat are lower than those in males. Loss of ascorbate during ischemia is also less in females, suggesting lower oxidative stress. After ovariectomy, however, ischemia-induced loss equals that in males. In the present study, we determined ascorbate levels in maturing male and female rat brain to establish when the gender difference in content arises. We further investigated whether 17beta-estradiol and/or progesterone treatment modulate levels and ischemia-induced loss in ovariectomized females and compared these data with those from normal females in proestrus and estrus. Gender differences in brain ascorbate content were absent before puberty and persisted only in cortex in aging rats. Chronic estradiol treatment, whether alone or in combination with progesterone, prevented an ovariectomy-induced ascorbate increase in hippocampus and caused levels in cortex and cerebellum to fall below those of randomly sampled normal females. These same low levels were found during proestrus and estrus. Estradiol replacement after ovariectomy prevented enhanced ischemia-induced ascorbate loss in hippocampus, but not in cortex or cerebellum. Ischemia-induced losses in proestrus and estrus were similar to those in normal controls. Progesterone had little effect in any region. These data indicate that ascorbate content and redox balance in female brain are influenced postpubertally by estrogens in a region-selective manner.

Seasonal- and temperature-dependent variation in CNS ascorbate and glutathione levels in anoxia-tolerant turtles.

We determined the ascorbic acid (ascorbate) and glutathione (GSH) contents of eight regions of the CNS from anoxia-tolerant turtles collected in summer and in winter. Ascorbate was of special interest because it is found in exceptionally high levels in the turtle CNS. The temperature-dependence of CNS ascorbate content was established by comparing levels in animals collected from two geographic zones with different average winter temperatures and in animals re-acclimated to different temperatures in the laboratory. The analytical method was liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection. Turtle ascorbate levels were 30-40% lower in animals acclimatized to winter (2 degrees C) than to summer (23 degrees C) in all regions of the CNS. Similarly, GSH levels were 20-30% lower in winter than in summer. Winter ascorbate levels were higher in turtles from Louisiana (19 degrees C) than in turtles acclimatized to winter in Wisconsin (2 degrees C). Summer and winter levels of ascorbate could be reversed by re-acclimating animals to cold (1 degree C) or warm (23 degrees C) temperatures for at least one week. CNS water content did not differ between cold- and warm-acclimated turtles. Taken together, the data indicated that ascorbate and GSH undergo significant seasonal variation and that the catalyst for change is environmental temperature. Steady-state ascorbate content showed a linear dependence on temperature, with a slope of 1.5% per degree C that was independent of CNS region. Lower levels of cerebral antioxidants in turtles exposed to colder temperatures were consistent with the decreased rate of cerebral metabolism that accompanies winter hibernation. Cerebral ascorbate and GSH levels in the turtle remained similar to or higher than those in mammals, even during winter, however. These findings support the notion that unique mechanisms of antioxidant regulation in the turtle contribute to their tolerance of the hypoxia-reoxygenation that characterizes diving behavior.

Quisqualate, kainate and NMDA can initiate spreading depression in the turtle cerebellum.

This study evaluated the role of excitatory amino acid (EAA) receptor activation in spreading depression (SD), using the in vitro turtle cerebellum as a model system. SD was triggered by electrical stimulation or by elevated K+ after the cerebellum had been conditioned for at least 30 min with physiological saline in which most of the chloride had been replaced by propionate. SD was recognized as a transient (1-3 min) negative shift of extracellular potential accompanied by depression of evoked potentials (15-30 min) and an increase of extracellular K+ up to 60 mM, which spread across the cerebellum at rates of 1-7 mm/min. SD usually commenced in the granular layer, which apparently contains the 3 major EAA receptor subtypes, quisqualate, kainate and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), then subsequently spread to the molecular layer, which is largely free of NMDA receptors. Glutamate, aspartate, NMDA, kainate and quisqualate all triggered SD. Kynurenic acid and 2-aminophosphonovaleric acid (APV) inhibited SD under certain conditions further suggesting involvement of EAA receptors. The initiation of SD was blocked by high Mg2+ and facilitated in low extracellular Mg2+, which also eliminated the delay in molecular layer SD onset. Our data suggest that no one EAA receptor subtype is singly responsible for SD.