Physical activity and sedentary behavior across three time-points and associations with social skills in early childhood.

BACKGROUND: The growth and development that occurs in early childhood has long-term implications, therefore understanding the relevant determinants is needed to inform early prevention and intervention. The objectives of the study were to examine: 1) the longitudinal associations of physical activity and sedentary behavior with social skills and 2) how physical activity and sedentary behavior track over three time-points. METHODS: Participants were from the Parents' Role in Establishing healthy Physical activity and Sedentary behavior habits (PREPS) project. A total of 251 eligible toddlers and their parents participated at baseline in 2014/15 (time 1; 1.6 ± 0.2 years) and a sub-sample participated at 1-year (time 2; n = 79; 2.7 ± 0.3 years) and 2-year (time 3; n = 77; 3.7 ± 0.4 years) follow-ups. Sedentary time (≤25 counts/15 s), light-intensity physical activity (LPA; 26-419 counts/15 s), and moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA; ≥420/15 s) were objectively measured with wGT3X-BT ActiGraph accelerometers, and standardized for wear time. Parents reported their children's screen time (television/video, video/computer games) at all three time-points. Parents also reported on children's social skills using the Adaptive Social Behavior Inventory (ASBI) at time-points 2 and 3, and comply (e.g., cooperates; 10 items), express (e.g., joins play; 13 items), and disrupt (e.g., teases; 7 items) subscales were created by summing items. Generalized estimating equations (GEE) were conducted to address objective one. Tracking coefficients (low: ß1 < 0.30; moderate: ß1 = 0.30-0.59; moderate-high: ß1 = 0.60-0.90; high: ß1 > 0.9) were conducted using GEE to address objective two. RESULTS: Across the study, screen time was negatively associated with express (b = - 0.068, 95%CI: -0.114, - 0.023) and comply (b = - 0.056; 95%CI: -0.094, - 0.018) scores and positively associated with disrupt scores (b = 0.004; 95% CI: 0.001, 0.006). Findings were similar for television/videos but less consistent for video/computer games. No associations were observed for physical activity. Screen time significantly tracked at moderate-high levels (ß1 = 0.63; 95% CI: 0.45, 0.81), while all other behaviors tracked at moderate levels (ß1 = 0.35-0.49; p < 0.01) over the three time-points. CONCLUSIONS: Screen time was unfavorably associated with social skills across early childhood. Furthermore, all behaviors tracked at moderate to moderate-high levels from toddler to preschool ages. Therefore, promoting healthy physical activity and sedentary behavior patterns early in life, especially for screen time, may be important.

Objectively Measured Environmental Correlates of Toddlers' Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior.

PURPOSE: Examine objectively measured environmental correlates of physical activity and sedentary behavior in toddlers (12-35 mo). METHODS: Participants were recruited at immunization appointments in Edmonton, Canada. Physical activity and sedentary time were objectively measured via accelerometers (n = 149). The parents reported screen time and demographic characteristics via a questionnaire (n = 249). Postal codes were used to link neighborhood data via geographic information systems. Neighborhood data included 4 environmental domains: functional (ie, walkability), safety (ie, crime), esthetic (ie, tree density), and destination (ie, cul-de-sac density, wooded area percentage, green space percentage, recreation density, park density). Weather data (temperature and precipitation) were obtained via historical weather records. Multilevel multiple linear regression models were used to account for clustering of participants within neighborhoods and adjustment of demographic variables. RESULTS: Each additional 10°C of mean temperature was significantly associated with 5.74 (95% confidence interval, 0.96-10.50) minutes per day of higher light-intensity physical activity, though the effect size was small (f2 = 0.08). No other significant associations were observed. CONCLUSIONS: The lack of significant findings for neighborhood environment factors suggests proximal factors (eg, features of the home environment) may be more important in predicting toddlers' physical activity and sedentary behavior. More indoor physical activity opportunities may be needed on colder days for toddlers.

Role of parental and environmental characteristics in toddlers' physical activity and screen time: Bayesian analysis of structural equation models.

BACKGROUND: Guided by the Socialization Model of Child Behavior (SMCB), this cross-sectional study examined direct and indirect associations of parental cognitions and behavior, the home and neighborhood environment, and toddlers' personal attributes with toddlers' physical activity and screen time. METHODS: Participants included 193 toddlers (1.6 ± 0.2 years) from the Parents' Role in Establishing healthy Physical activity and Sedentary behavior habits (PREPS) project. Toddlers' screen time and personal attributes, physical activity- or screen time-specific parental cognitions and behaviors, and the home and neighborhood environment were measured via parental-report using the PREPS questionnaire. Accelerometry-measured physical activity was available in 123 toddlers. Bayesian estimation in structural equation modeling (SEM) using the Markov Chain Monte Carlo algorithm was performed to test an SMCB hypothesized model. Covariates included toddlers' age, sex, race/ethnicity, main type of childcare, and family household income. RESULTS: In the SMCB hypothesized screen time model, higher parental barrier self-efficacy for limiting toddlers' screen time was associated with higher parental screen time limiting practices (ß = 0.451), while higher parental negative outcome expectations for limiting toddlers' screen time was associated with lower parental screen time limiting practices (ß = - 0.147). In turn, higher parental screen time limiting practices was associated with lower screen time among toddlers (ß = - 0.179). Parental modeling of higher screen time was associated with higher screen time among toddlers directly (ß = 0.212) and indirectly through the home environment. Specifically, higher screen time among parents was associated with having at least one electronic device in toddlers' bedrooms (ß = 0.146) and, in turn, having electronics in the bedroom, compared to none, was associated with higher screen time among toddlers (ß = 0.250). Neighborhood safety was not associated with toddlers' screen time in the SEM analysis. No significant correlations were observed between the SMCB variables and toddlers' physical activity; thus, no further analyses were performed for physical activity. CONCLUSIONS: Parents and their interactions with the home environment may play an important role in shaping toddlers' screen time. Findings can inform family-based interventions aiming to minimize toddlers' screen time. Future research is needed to identify correlates of toddlers' physical activity.

Meeting new Canadian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for the Early Years and associations with adiposity among toddlers living in Edmonton, Canada.

BACKGROUND: Canada has recently released guidelines that include toddler-specific recommendations for physical activity, screen-based sedentary behaviour, and sleep. This study examined the proportions of toddlers meeting the new Canadian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for the Early Years (0-4 years) and associations with body mass index (BMI) z-scores in a sample from Edmonton, Canada. METHODS: Participants included 151 toddlers (aged 19.0 ± 1.9 months) for whom there was complete objectively measured physical activity data from the Parents' Role in Establishing healthy Physical activity and Sedentary behaviour habits (PREPS) project. Toddlers' physical activity was measured using ActiGraph wGT3X-BT monitors. Toddlers' screen time and sleep were measured using the PREPS questionnaire. Toddlers' height and weight were objectively measured by public health nurses and BMI z-scores were calculated using World Health Organization growth standards. Meeting the overall 24-Hour Movement Guidelines was defined as: ≥180 min/day of total physical activity, including ≥1 min/day of moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity; no screen time per day (for those aged 12-23 months) or ≤1 h/day of screen time per day (ages 24-35 months); and 11-14 h of sleep per 24-h period. Frequency analyses and linear regression models were conducted. RESULTS: Only 11.9% of toddlers met the overall 24-Hour Movement Guidelines, but this finding was largely driven by screen time. The majority of toddlers met the individual physical activity (99.3%) and sleep (82.1%) recommendations, while only 15.2% of toddlers met the screen time recommendation. No associations were observed between meeting specific and general combinations of recommendations within the guidelines and BMI z-scores. CONCLUSIONS: Most toddlers in this sample were meeting physical activity and sleep recommendations but were engaging in more screen time than recommended. Consequently, only a small proportion of toddlers met the overall guidelines. Based on the findings of this study, identifying modifiable correlates of screen time to inform appropriate strategies to reduce screen time appears key for increasing the proportion of toddlers meeting the 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for the Early Years. Future research should examine the associations between meeting the new guidelines and other health indicators. Furthermore, future high-quality studies examining dose-response relationships between movement behaviours and health indicators are needed to inform guideline updates.

Measuring parent-child mutuality: a review of current observational coding systems.

Mutuality is defined as a smooth, back-and-forth positive interaction consisting of mutual enjoyment, cooperation, and responsiveness. The bidirectional nature of mutuality is an essential component to the parent-child relationship since a high quality parent-child mutual relationship is crucial to encouraging children's positive socialization and development (S. Lollis & L. Kuczynski, 1997; E.E. Maccoby, 2007). Several coding systems have been developed in recent years to assess this distinct and crucial aspect of the parent-child relationship. The present article reviews the following four mutuality coding schemes: the Parent-Child Interaction System (K. Deater-Deckard, M.V. Pylas, & S. Petrill, 1997), the Mutually Responsive Orientation Scale (N. Aksan, G. Kochanska, & M.R. Ortmann, 2006), the Caregiver-Child Affect, Responsiveness, and Engagement Scale (C.S. Tamis-LeMonda, P. Ahuja, B. Hannibal, J.D. Shannon, & M. Spellmann, 2002), and the Synchrony and Control Coding Scheme (J. Mize & G.S. Pettit, 1997). The review will focus on observational coding schemes available to researchers interested a central element of quality parent-child relationships in the early years.

Parental autonomy support in relation to preschool aged children's behavior: Examining positive guidance, negative control, and responsiveness.

This study evaluated the relationship between parental autonomy support and preschool-aged children's display of autonomy. Specifically, we examined if mothers' and fathers' use of positive guidance, negative control, and responsiveness during parent-child interactions predicted children's autonomous behavior. One hundred families comprised of mothers, fathers, and their children participated. Parent-child dyads were filmed engaging in an unstructured play task and interactions were coded using the Parent-Child Interaction System. Mothers' use of negative control and father's use of positive guidance, negative control, and responsiveness predicted children's displays of autonomy, whereas mothers' positive guidance and responsiveness did not. The results offer insight into how parents play unique roles in promoting their children's autonomy, which has implications for practitioners and researchers who work with families. Our findings provide examples of behaviors that parents can employ to promote their children's autonomy.

Canadian mothers' perceived support needs during postpartum depression.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the support needs, support resources, barriers to support, and preferences for support intervention for women with postpartum depression. DESIGN: Multisite, exploratory, descriptive study in which qualitative data were collected on support needs, the availability of resources, perceived barriers to support, and preferences for support of women who have experienced symptoms of postpartum depression. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Conducted in Alberta and New Brunswick; mothers were interviewed individually (Alberta, n= 24; New Brunswick, n= 17) and in groups (Alberta, n= 5; New Brunswick, n= 6). RESULTS: For most mothers, one-on-one support was preferred when postpartum depression is recognized. Group support should be available once the mothers start to feel better and are able to comfortably interact with other mothers in a group format. This suite of alternatives needs to be underpinned by concerted public education efforts.

The prediction of preschool children's weight from family environment factors: gender-linked differences.

The main objective of this study was to test an explanatory model predicting preschool girls' and boys' body weight from certain child variables (food intake, sedentary behaviors, and eating habits), as well as family variables (interaction during mealtime and level of family financial resources allocated to meeting children's eating needs). A randomized stratified subsample of parents was selected from a larger study (Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development, QLSCD-1998-2002), with a breakdown of 581 girls and 611 boys of 4 years of age. Children's skin fold ratio, weight, height, and Body Mass Index (BMI) were recorded. Questionnaires were administered to parents (usually the mother). Using structural equation modeling (SEM) separately for girls and boys, the family environment model of healthy weight development was tested. Results yielded a good fit of the model for both genders. For boys, significant predictors of body weight in the model were family food insecurity and conflicts during mealtime. Healthy eating was predicted by food insecurity, mealtime conflicts, and sedentary behaviors. Mealtime conflicts predicted sedentary behaviors. For girls, none of the variables predicted body weight, however food insecurity predicted less healthy eating. These results outline the importance of prevention and intervention within families with young children.

Memory patterns of acquisition and retention of verbal and nonverbal information in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders.

BACKGROUND: Previous research indicates that children with FASD have both memory and learning deficits. However, there is no consensus about whether the deficits identified from a pattern of impairment, and whether this pattern is consistent with the current theories regarding the organization of memory. Thus, the goal of this study was to further explore memory functions and expose possible patterns that may exist in children with FASD. METHODS: The Children's Memory Scale (CMS) was used to measure visual and verbal memory, as well as learning and encoding, among 30 children with FASD (ages 9-16 years). Functioning was conceptualized through use of a model of working memory. RESULTS: A significant difference between types of verbal memory in the FASD sample was identified. Specifically, recall of word pairs was found to be more impaired than that for stories. In addition to this, recall of immediate word pairs was significantly more impaired than that for delayed word pairs, implying the presence of encoding deficits in this area. CONCLUSIONS: Children and adolescents with FASD displayed specific types of verbal memory deficits and these deficits were greater for immediate rather than delayed memory. These data are consistent with previous studies that describe deficits in immediate memory, and suggest that deficits in delayed memory are better accounted for by encoding deficits. Furthermore, their greatest difficulty arose with those items in which the phonological loop was required, which would have facilitated learning though internal recitation and adequate phonological storage. Further research into these distinctions in memory is warranted, as is exploration into educational techniques that could account for delayed encoding in children with FASD.

"This is a bad dog, you know...": constructing shared meanings during sibling pretend play.

The construction of shared meanings in play, pretense enactment, internal state language, and sibling relationship quality were investigated in 40 kindergarteners with an older (M age = 7.10 years) or younger (M age = 3.6 years) sibling. Dyadic strategies to construct shared meanings (e.g., extensions, building on) were positively associated with frequency of pretense and internal state language. Developmental differences indicated that older dyads used more shared meaning strategies, whereas younger dyads engaged in non-maintenance behaviors (i.e., disruptions to flow of play). Furthermore, firstborn kindergarteners used more non-maintenance behaviors, whereas second-born kindergarteners extended partner's ideas. Findings highlight the sibling relationship as a context for illuminating social understanding and relationship dynamics during pretend play.

"No! The lambs can stay out because they got cozies": constructive and destructive sibling conflict, pretend play, and social understanding.

Associations among constructive and destructive sibling conflict, pretend play, internal state language, and sibling relationship quality were investigated in 40 middle-class dyads with a kindergarten-age child (M age = 5.7 years). In 20 dyads the sibling was older (M age = 7.1 years) and in 20 dyads the sibling was younger (M age = 3.6 years). Dyads were videotaped playing with a farm set for 15 min; transcribed sessions were coded for (1) five types of conflict issues; (2) constructive, destructive, and passive resolution strategies; and (3) verbal and physical aggression. Measures of pretend play enactment, low- and high-level pretense negotiation strategies, and internal state language were also based on the transcripts. The Sibling Behavior and Feelings Questionnaire was used to assess both siblings' perceptions of sibling relationship quality. Findings revealed that conflict issues, aggression, and internal state language were associated with specific resolution strategies. Associations were evident between conflict issues and resolutions. Moreover, conflict issues and resolutions were associated with (1) relationship quality, (2) high-level pretense negotiation, and (3) internal state language employed in both play and conflict. Findings are discussed in light of recent theory on developmental processes operating within children's relationships.