Effects of high-fat diet and losartan on renal cortical blood flow using contrast ultrasound imaging.

Obesity-related kidney disease occurs as a result of complex interactions between metabolic and hemodynamic effects. Changes in microvascular perfusion may play a major role in kidney disease; however, these changes are difficult to assess in vivo. Here, we used perfusion ultrasound imaging to evaluate cortical blood flow in a mouse model of high-fat diet-induced kidney disease. C57BL/6J mice were randomized to a standard diet (STD) or a high-fat diet (HFD) for 30 wk and then treated either with losartan or a placebo for an additional 6 wk. Noninvasive ultrasound perfusion imaging of the kidney was performed during infusion of a microbubble contrast agent. Blood flow within the microvasculature of the renal cortex and medulla was derived from imaging data. An increase in the time required to achieve full cortical perfusion was observed for HFD mice relative to STD. This was reversed following treatment with losartan. These data were concurrent with an increased glomerular filtration rate in HFD mice compared with STD- or HFD-losartan-treated mice. Losartan treatment also abrogated fibro-inflammatory disease, assessed by markers at the protein and messenger level. Finally, a reduction in capillary density was found in HFD mice, and this was reversed upon losartan treatment. This suggests that alterations in vascular density may be responsible for the elevated perfusion time observed by imaging. These data demonstrate that ultrasound contrast imaging is a robust and sensitive method for evaluating changes in renal microvascular perfusion and that cortical perfusion time may be a useful parameter for evaluating obesity-related renal disease.

Real-time technique for improving molecular imaging and guiding drug delivery in large blood vessels: in vitro and ex vivo results.

Ultrasound-based molecular imaging employs targeted microbubbles to image vascular pathology. This approach also has the potential to monitor molecularly targeted microbubble-based drug delivery. We present an image-guided drug delivery technique that uses multiple pulses to translate, image, and cavitate microbubbles in real time. This technique can be applied to both imaging of pathology in large arteries (sizes and flow comparable to those in humans) and guiding localized drug delivery in blood vessels. The microbubble translation (or pushing) efficacy of this technique was compared in a variety of flow media: saline, viscous saline (4 cp), and bovine blood. It was observed that the performance of this approach was marginally better (by 6, 4, and 2 dB) in viscous saline than in bovine blood with varying levels of hematocrit (40%, 30%, and 10%). The drug delivery efficacy of this technique was evaluated by in vitro and ex vivo experiments. High-intensity pulses mediated fluorophore (DiI) deposition on endothelial cells (in vitro) without causing cell destruction. Ex vivo fluorophore delivery experiments conducted on swine carotids of 2 and 5 mm cross-section diameter demonstrated a high degree of correspondence in spatial localization of the fluorophore delivery between the ultrasound and composite fluorescence microscopy images of the arterial cross sections.

Development of a Translatable Ultrasound Molecular Imaging Agent for Inflammation.

This study details the development, characterization and non-clinical efficacy of an ultrasound molecular imaging agent intended for molecular imaging of P-selectin in humans. A targeting ligand based on a recently discovered human selectin ligand was manufactured as fusion protein, and activity for human and mouse P- and E-selectin was evaluated by functional immunoassay. The targeting ligand was covalently conjugated to a lipophilic anchor inserted into a phospholipid microbubble shell. Three lots of the targeted microbubble drug product, TS-07-009, were produced, and assays for size distribution, zeta potential and morphology were established. The suitability of TS-07-009 as a molecular imaging agent was evaluated in vitro in a flow-based adhesion assay and in vivo using a canine model of transient myocardial ischemia. Selectivity for P-selectin over E-selectin was observed in both the human and murine systems. Contrast agent adhesion increased with P-selectin concentration in a dynamic adhesion assay. Significant contrast enhancement was observed on ultrasound imaging with TS-07-009 in post-ischemic canine myocardium at 30 or 90 min of re-perfusion. Negligible enhancement was observed in resting (no prior ischemia) hearts or with a control microbubble 90 min after ischemia. The microbubble contrast agent described here exhibits physiochemical properties and in vivo behavior suitable for development as a clinical imaging agent.

Molecular ultrasound imaging using microbubble contrast agents.

Molecular imaging is a new field in bioscience which, by virtue of utilizing a contrast agent or reporter, facilitates early detection of the disease processes before phenotypic changes become apparent. Molecular imaging with ultrasound utilizes contrast agents that bear adhesion ligands designed to bind tissue markers specific for a disease process. Such agents can be detected by ultrasound with a great degree of sensitivity, providing both anatomical reference information as well as additional data such as molecular characteristics of the interrogated region. This review summarizes current applications and challenges of molecular ultrasound imaging and offers future technologies which likely follow as an improvement to the existing techniques. Due to the widespread availability of ultrasound and ease of use, molecular ultrasound imaging is likely to emerge as a powerful diagnostic technique.

Enhanced targeting of ultrasound contrast agents using acoustic radiation force.

Contrast-enhanced ultrasound has shown significant promise as a molecular imaging modality. However, one potential drawback is the difficulty that ultrasound contrast agents (UCA) may have in achieving adhesion to target molecules on the vascular endothelium. Microbubble UCA exhibit a lateral migration toward the vessel axis in laminar flow, preventing UCA contact with the endothelium. In the current study, we have investigated low-amplitude acoustic radiation as a mechanism to move circulating UCA toward targeted endothelium. Intravital microscopy was used to assess the retention of microbubble UCA targeted to P-selectin in the mouse cremaster microcirculation and femoral vessels. Acoustic treatment enhanced UCA retention to P-selectin four-fold in cremaster venules and in the femoral vein and 20-fold in the femoral artery. These results suggest acoustic treatment as a mechanism for enabling ultrasound-based molecular imaging in blood vessels with hemodynamic and anatomical conditions otherwise adversarial for UCA retention.

Deformable gas-filled microbubbles targeted to P-selectin.

Ultrasound contrast microbubbles have been successfully targeted to a number of intravascular disease markers. We hypothesized that targeted delivery could be improved further, by making the microbubbles deformable, leading to increased microbubble-endothelium adhesion contact area and stabilized adhesion. Activated leukocytes utilize such strategy; they deform after binding to inflamed endothelium in the vasculature. Lipid-shell microbubbles were targeted to the endothelial inflammatory protein P-selectin with a monoclonal anti-P-selectin antibody attached to the microbubble shell. Deformable microbubbles were created by controlled pressurization with partial gas loss, which generated an average excess shell surface area of approximately 30% and the formation of outward-projected wrinkles and folds. Targeted microbubble adhesion and deformability were assessed in the parallel plate flow chamber under shear flow. Sustained adhesion of deformable microbubbles at wall shear stresses between 0.4 and 1.35 dyn/cm(2) was consistently better than adhesion of wrinkle-free microbubbles. Over this shear range, targeted wrinkled microbubbles were deformed by shear flow, unlike wrinkle-free microbubbles. In a murine cremaster inflammation model, a significant improvement of deformable microbubble targeting was observed by intravital microscopy. Overall, the mechanical aspects of adhesion, such as particle shape, deformability and surface microstructure, are important in engineering efficient site-targeted particle-based agents for medical imaging and therapy.

Short Hairpin RNA Knockdown of Connective Tissue Growth Factor by Ultrasound-Targeted Microbubble Destruction Improves Renal Fibrosis.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether ultrasound-targeted microbubble destruction transfer of interfering RNA against connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) in the kidney would ameliorate renal fibrosis in vivo. A short hairpin RNA (shRNA) targeting CTGF was cloned into a tool plasmid and loaded onto the surface of a cationic microbubble product. A unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) model in mice was used to evaluate the effect of CTGF knockdown. Mice were administered the plasmid-carrying microbubble intravenously, and ultrasound was applied locally to the obstructed kidney. Mice undergoing a sham UUO surgery and untreated UUO mice were used as disease controls, and mice administered plasmid alone, plasmid with ultrasound treatment and microbubbles and plasmid without ultrasound were used as treatment controls. Mice were treated once and then evaluated at day 14. CTGF in the kidney was measured by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and Western blot. Expression of CTGF, transforming growth factor ß1, α smooth muscle actin and type I collagen in the obstructed kidney was evaluated by immunohistochemistry. The cohort treated with plasmid-carrying microbubbles and ultrasound exhibited reduced mRNA and protein expression of CTGF (p < 0.01). Furthermore, CTGF gene silencing decreased the interstitial deposition of transforming growth factor ß1, α smooth muscle actin and type I collagen as assessed in immunohistochemistry, as well as reduced renal fibrosis in pathologic alterations (p < 0.01). No significant changes in target mRNA, protein expression or disease pathology were observed in the control cohorts. A single treatment of ultrasound-targeted microbubble destruction is able to deliver sufficient shRNA to inhibit the expression of CTGF and provide a meaningful reduction in disease severity. This technique may be a potential therapy for treatment of renal fibrosis.

Acoustic radiation force enhances targeted delivery of ultrasound contrast microbubbles: in vitro verification.

Recent research has shown that targeted ultrasound contrast microbubbles achieve specific adhesion to regions of intravascular pathology, but not in areas of high flow. It has been suggested that acoustic radiation can be used to force free-stream microbubbles toward the target, but this has not been verified for actual targeted contrast agents. We present evidence that acoustic radiation indeed increases the specific targeted accumulation of microbubbles. Lipid microbubbles bearing an antibody as a targeting ligand were infused through a microcapillary flow chamber coated with P-selectin as the target protein. A 2.0 MHz ultrasonic pulse was applied perpendicular to the flow direction. Microbubble accumulation was observed on the flow chamber surface opposite the transducer. An acoustic pressure of 122 kPa enhanced microbubble adhesion up to 60-fold in a microbubble concentration range of 0.25 x 10(6) to 75 x 106) ml(-1). Acoustic pressure mediated the greatest adhesion enhancement at concentrations within the clinical dosing range. Acoustic pressure enhanced targeting nearly 80-fold at a wall shear rate of 1244 s(-1), suggesting that this mechanism is appropriate for achieving targeted microbubble delivery in high-flow vessels. Microbubble adhesion increased with the square of acoustic pressure between 25 and 122 kPa, and decreased substantially at higher pressures.

A novel method for measuring dynamic changes in cell volume.

Many cell types regulate their volume in response to extracellular tonicity changes through a complex series of adaptive mechanisms. Several methods that are presently used to measure cell volume changes include Coulter counters, fluorescent techniques, electronic impedance, and video microscopy. Although these methods are widely used and accepted, there are limitations associated with each technique. This paper describes a new method to measure changes in cell volume based on the principle that fluid flow within a rigid system is well determined. For this study, cos-7 cells were plated to line the inner lumen of a glass capillary and stimulated to swell or shrink by altering the osmolarity of the perfusing solution. The cell capillary was connected in series with a blank reference capillary, and differential pressure changes across each tube were monitored. The advantages of this method include 1) ability to continuously monitor changes in volume during rapid solution changes, 2) independence from cell morphology, 3) presence of physiological conditions with cell surface contacts and cell-cell interactions, 4) no phototoxic effects such as those associated with fluorescent methods, and 5) ability to report from large populations of cells. With this method, we could detect the previously demonstrated enhanced volume regulation of cells overexpressing the membrane phosphoprotein phospholemman, which has been implicated in osmolyte transport.

Binding and detachment dynamics of microbubbles targeted to P-selectin under controlled shear flow.

This study was performed to assess the binding kinetics of a targeted microbubble contrast agent exposed to shear stress. An ultrasound contrast targeted to P-selectin was designed by conjugating monoclonal antibodies against murine P-selectin (RB40.34) to the lipid monolayer shell of the microbubble using poly(ethylene glycol)-biotin-streptavidin. The attachment and detachment of targeted microbubbles to P-selectin immobilized on a culture dish were assessed in a parallel-plate flow chamber. Targeted microbubbles (5 x 10(6) particles/ml) drawn through the flow chamber coated with P-selectin (109 sites/microm(2)) at a shear stress of 0.3 dyn/cm(2) accumulated at a rate of 565 mm(-2) min(-1). Attachment rates increased at higher plate surface densities of P-selectin, and microbubble detachment was reduced. Accumulation rate first increased with shear stress, reached a maximum at approximately 0.6 dyn/cm(2) and then decreased. Control experiments on a plate that lacked P-selectin, or was blocked with mAb RB40.34, resulted in minimal bubble attachment. Microbubble detachment was tested by ramping up shear stress at 30-s intervals. Half-maximal detachment was reached at 34 dyn/cm(2). Overall, accumulation and retention of targeted ultrasound contrast agents is possible under physiologic flow conditions and is strongly influenced by shear stress and surface density of the target receptor.

Nucleic acid delivery with microbubbles and ultrasound.

Nucleic acid-based therapy is a growing field of drug delivery research. Although ultrasound has been suggested to enhance transfection decades ago, it took a combination of ultrasound with nucleic acid carrier systems (microbubbles, liposomes, polyplexes, and viral carriers) to achieve reasonable nucleic acid delivery efficacy. Microbubbles serve as foci for local deposition of ultrasound energy near the target cell, and greatly enhance sonoporation. The major advantage of this approach is in the minimal transfection in the non-insonated non-target tissues. Microbubbles can be simply co-administered with the nucleic acid carrier or can be modified to carry nucleic acid themselves. Liposomes with embedded gas or gas precursor particles can also be used to carry nucleic acid, release and deliver it by the ultrasound trigger. Successful testing in a wide variety of animal models (myocardium, solid tumors, skeletal muscle, and pancreas) proves the potential usefulness of this technique for nucleic acid drug delivery.

The delayed onset of subharmonic and ultraharmonic emissions from a phospholipid-shelled microbubble contrast agent.

Characterizing the non-linear response of microbubble contrast agents is important for their efficacious use in imaging and therapy. In this article, we report that the subharmonic and ultraharmonic response of lipid-shelled microbubble contrast agents exhibits a strong temporal dependence. We characterized non-linear emissions from Targestar-p microbubbles (Targeson Inc., San Diego, CA, USA) periodically for 60 min, at 10 MHz excitation frequency. The results revealed a considerable increase in the subharmonic and ultraharmonic response (nearly 12-15 and 5-8 dB) after 5-10 min of agent preparation. However, the fundamental and the harmonic response remained almost unchanged in this period. During the next 50 min, the subharmonic, fundamental, ultraharmonic, and harmonic responses decreased steadily by 2-5 dB. The temporal changes in the non-linear behavior of the agent appeared to be primarily mediated by gas-exchange through the microbubble shell; temperature and prior acoustic excitation based mechanisms were ruled out. Further, there was no measurable change in the agent size distribution by static diffusion. We envisage that these findings will help obtain reproducible measurements from agent characterization, non-linear imaging, and fluid-pressure sensing. These findings also suggest the possibility for improving non-linear imaging by careful design of ultrasound contrast agents.

An IVUS transducer for microbubble therapies.

There is interest in examining the potential of modified intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) catheters to facilitate dual diagnostic and therapeutic roles using ultrasound plus microbubbles for localized drug delivery to the vessel wall. The goal of this study was to design, prototype, and validate an IVUS transducer for microbubble-based drug delivery. A 1-D acoustic radiation force model and finite element analysis guided the design of a 1.5-MHz IVUS transducer. Using the IVUS transducer, biotinylated microbubbles were displaced in water and bovine whole blood to the streptavidin-coated wall of a flow phantom by a 1.5-MHz center frequency, peak negative pressure = 70 kPa pulse with varying pulse repetition frequency (PRF) while monitoring microbubble adhesion with ultrasound. A fit was applied to the RF data to extract a time constant (τ). As PRF was increased in water, the time constant decreased (τ = 32.6 s, 1 kHz vs. τ = 8.2 s, 6 kHz), whereas in bovine whole blood an adhesion-no adhesion transition was found for PRFs ≥ 8 kHz. Finally, a fluorophore was delivered to an ex vivo swine artery using microbubbles and the IVUS transducer, resulting in a 6.6-fold increase in fluorescence. These results indicate the importance of PRF (or duty factor) for IVUS acoustic radiation force microbubble displacement and the potential for IVUS and microbubbles to provide localized drug delivery.

Modifying the size distribution of microbubble contrast agents for high-frequency subharmonic imaging.

PURPOSE: Subharmonic imaging is of interest for high frequency (>10 MHz) nonlinear imaging, because it can specifically detect the response of ultrasound contrast agents (UCA). However, conventional UCA produce a weak subharmonic response at high frequencies, which limits the sensitivity of subharmonic imaging. We hypothesized that modifying the size distribution of the agent can enhance its high-frequency subharmonic response. The overall goal of this study was to investigate size-manipulated populations of the agent to determine the range of sizes that produce the strongest subharmonic response at high frequencies (in this case, 20 MHz). A secondary goal was to assess whether the number or the volume-weighted size distribution better represents the efficacy of the agent for high-frequency subharmonic imaging. METHODS: The authors created six distinct agent size distributions from the native distribution of a commercially available UCA (Targestar-P®). The median (number-weighted) diameter of the native agent was 1.63 µm, while the median diameters of the size-manipulated populations ranged from 1.35 to 2.99 µm. The authors conducted acoustic measurements with native and size-manipulated agent populations to assess their subharmonic response to 20 MHz excitation (pulse duration 1.5 µs, pressure amplitudes 100-398 kPa). RESULTS: The results showed a considerable difference between the subharmonic response of the agent populations that were investigated. The subharmonic response peaked for the agent population with a median diameter of 2.15 µm, which demonstrated a subharmonic signal that was 8 dB higher than the native agent. Comparing the subharmonic response of different UCA populations indicated that microbubbles with diameters between 1.3 and 3 µm are the dominant contributors to the subharmonic response at 20 MHz. Additionally, a better correlation was observed between the subharmonic response of the agent and the number-weighted size-distribution (R2=0.98) than with the volume-weighted size distribution (R2=0.53). CONCLUSIONS: Modifying the size distribution of the agent appears to be a viable strategy to improve the sensitivity of high-frequency subharmonic imaging. In addition, when the size distribution of the UCA has not been suitably modified, the number-weighted size distribution is a useful parameter to accurately describe the efficacy of the agent for high-frequency subharmonic imaging.

Ultrasound-based molecular imaging and specific gene delivery to mesenteric vasculature by endothelial adhesion molecule targeted microbubbles in a mouse model of Crohn's disease.

Crohn's disease (CD) is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the gastrointestinal tract (GI) for which treatments with immunosuppressive drugs have significant side-effects. Consequently, there is a clinical need for site-specific and non-toxic delivery of therapeutic genes or drugs for CD and related disorders such as inflammatory bowel disease. The aim of this study was to validate a gene delivery platform based on ultrasound-activated lipid-shelled microbubbles (MBs) targeted to inflamed mesenteric endothelium in the CD-like TNFΔARE mouse model. MBs bearing luciferase plasmid were functionalized with antibodies to MAdCAM-1 (MB-M) or VCAM-1 (MB-V), biomarkers of gut endothelial cell inflammation and evaluated in an in vitro flow chamber assay with appropriate ligands to confirm targeting specificity. Following MB retro-orbital injection in TNFΔARE mice, the mean contrast intensity in the ileocecal region from accumulated MB-M and MB-V was 8.5-fold and 3.6-fold greater, respectively, compared to MB-C. Delivery of luciferase plasmid to the GI tract in TNFΔARE mice was achieved by insonating the endothelial cell-bound agents using a commercial sonoporator. Luciferase expression in the midgut was detected 48 h later by bioluminescence imaging and further confirmed by immunohistochemical staining. The liver, spleen, heart, and kidney had no detectable bioluminescence following insonation. Transfection of the microcirculation guided by a targeted, acoustically-activated platform such as an ultrasound contrast agent microbubble has the potential to be a minimally-invasive treatment strategy to ameliorate CD and other inflammatory conditions.

In vivo validation and 3D visualization of broadband ultrasound molecular imaging.

Ultrasound can selectively and specifically visualize upregulated vascular receptors through the detection of bound microbubbles. However, most current ultrasound molecular imaging methods incur delays that result in longer acquisition times and reduced frame rates. These delays occur for two main reasons: 1) multi-pulse imaging techniques are used to differentiate microbubbles from tissue and 2) acquisition occurs after free bubble clearance (>6 minutes) in order to differentiate bound from freely circulating microbubbles. In this paper, we validate tumor imaging with a broadband single pulse molecular imaging method that is faster than the multi-pulse methods typically implemented on commercial scanners. We also combine the single pulse method with interframe filtering to selectively image targeted microbubbles without waiting for unbound bubble clearance, thereby reducing acquisition time from 10 to 2 minutes. The single pulse imaging method leverages non-linear bubble behavior by transmitting at low and receiving at high frequencies (TLRH). We implemented TLRH imaging and visualized the accumulation of intravenously administrated integrin-targeted microbubbles in a phantom and a Met-1 mouse tumor model. We found that the TLRH contrast imaging has a ~2-fold resolution improvement over standard contrast pulse sequencing (CPS) imaging. By using interframe filtering, the tumor contrast was 24.8±1.6 dB higher after the injection of integrin-targeted microbubbles than non-targeted control MBs, while echoes from regions lacking the target integrin were suppressed by 26.2±2.1 dB as compared with tumor echoes. Since real-time three-dimensional (3D) molecular imaging provides a more comprehensive view of receptor distribution, we generated 3D images of tumors to estimate their volume, and these measurements correlated well with expected tumor sizes. We conclude that TLRH combined with interframe filtering is a feasible method for 3D targeted ultrasound imaging that is faster than current multi-pulse strategies.

Ultrasound molecular imaging of tumor angiogenesis with an integrin targeted microbubble contrast agent.

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: Ultrasound molecular imaging is an emerging technique for sensitive detection of intravascular targets. Molecular imaging of angiogenesis has strong potential for both clinical use and as a research tool in tumor biology and the development of antiangiogenic therapies. Our objectives are to develop a robust ultrasound contrast agent platform using microbubbles (MB) to which targeting ligands can be conjugated by biocompatible, covalent conjugation chemistry, and to develop a pure low mechanical index (MI) imaging processing method and corresponding quantification method. The MB and the imaging methods were evaluated in a mouse model of breast cancer in vivo. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We used a cyclic arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (cRGD) pentapeptide containing a terminal cysteine group conjugated to the surface of MB bearing pyridyldithio-propionate (PDP) for targeting αvß3 integrins. As negative controls, MB without a ligand or MB bearing a scrambled sequence (cRAD) were prepared. To enable characterization of peptides bound to MB surfaces, the cRGD peptide was labeled with FITC and detected by plate fluorometry, flow cytometry, and fluorescence microscopy. Targeted adhesion of cRGD-MB was demonstrated in an in vitro flow adhesion assay against recombinant murine αvß3 integrin protein and αvß3 integrin-expressing endothelial cells (bEnd.3). The specificity of cRGD-MB for αvß3 integrin was demonstrated by treating bEnd.3 EC with a blocking antibody. A murine model of mammary carcinoma was used to assess targeted adhesion and ultrasound molecular imaging in vivo. The targeted MB were visualized using a low MI contrast imaging pulse sequence, and quantified by intensity normalization and 2-dimensional Fourier transform analysis. RESULTS: The cRGD ligand concentration on the MB surface was ∼8.2 × 10(6) molecules per MB. At a wall shear stress of 1.0 dynes/cm, cRGD-MB exhibited 5-fold higher adhesion to immobilized recombinant αvß3 integrin relative to nontargeted MB and cRAD-MB controls. Similarly, cRGD-MB showed significantly greater adhesion to bEnd.3 EC compared with nontargeted MB and cRAD-MB. In addition, cRGD-MB, but not nontargeted MB or cRAD-MB, showed significantly enhanced contrast signals with a high tumor-to-background ratio. The adhesion of cRGD-MB to bEnd.3 was reduced by 80% after using anti-αv monoclonal antibody to treat bEnd.3. The normalized image intensity amplitude was ∼0.8, 7 minutes after the administration of cRGD-MB relative to the intensity amplitude at the time of injection, while the spatial variance in image intensity improved the detection of bound agents. The accumulation of cRGD-MB was blocked by preadministration with an anti-αv blocking antibody. CONCLUSIONS: The results demonstrate the functionality of a novel MB contrast agent covalently coupled to an RGD peptide for ultrasound molecular imaging of αvß3 integrin and the feasibility of quantitative molecular ultrasound imaging with a low MI.

Targeted renal therapies through microbubbles and ultrasound.

Microbubbles and ultrasound enhance the cellular uptake of drugs (including gene constructs) into the kidney. Microbubble induced modifications to the size selectivity of the filtration capacity of the kidney may enable drugs to enter previously inaccessible compartments of the kidney. So far, negative renal side-effects such as capillary bleeding have been reported only in rats, with no apparent damage in larger models such as pigs and rabbits. Although local delivery is accomplished by applying ultrasound only to the target area, efficient delivery using conventional microbubbles has depended on the combined injection of both drugs and microbubbles directly into the renal artery. Conjugation of antibodies to the shell of microbubbles allows for the specific accumulation of microbubbles in the target tissue after intravenous injection. This exciting approach opens new possibilities for both drug delivery and diagnostic ultrasound imaging in the kidney.

scVEGF microbubble ultrasound contrast agents: a novel probe for ultrasound molecular imaging of tumor angiogenesis.

OBJECTIVE: To develop a novel microbubble (MB) ultrasound contrast agent covalently coupled to a recombinant single-chain vascular endothelial growth factor construct (scVEGF) through uniform site-specific conjugation for ultrasound imaging of tumor angiogenesis. METHODS: Ligand conjugation to maleimide-bearing MB by thioether bonding was first validated with a fluorophore (BODIPY-cystine), and covalently bound dye was detected by fluorometry and flow cytometry. MBs were subsequently site-specifically conjugated to cysteine-containing Cys-tag in scVEGF, and bound scVEGF was quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Targeted adhesion of scVEGF-MB was investigated with in vitro parallel plate flow chamber assays with recombinant murine VEGFR-2 substrates and human VEGFR-2-expressing porcine endothelial cells (PAE/KDR). A wall-less ultrasound flow phantom, with flow channels coated with immobilized VEGFR-2, was used to detect adhesion of scVEGF-MB with contrast ultrasound imaging. A murine model of colon adenocarcinoma was used to assess retention of scVEGF-MB with contrast ultrasound imaging during tumor angiogenesis in vivo. RESULTS: Proof-of-principle of ligand conjugation to maleimide-bearing MB was demonstrated with a BODIPY-cysteine fluorophore. Conjugation of BODIPY to MB saturated at 10-fold molar excess BODIPY relative to maleimide groups on MB surfaces. MB reacted with scVEGF and led to the conjugation of 1.2 × 10(5) molecules scVEGF per MB. Functional adhesion of sc-VEGF-MB was shown in parallel plate flow chamber assays. At a shear stress of 1.0 dynes/cm2, scVEGF-MB exhibited 5-fold higher adhesion to both recombinant VEGFR-2 substrates and VEGFR-2-expressing endothelial cells compared with nontargeted control MB. Additionally, scVEGF-MB targeted to immobilized VEGFR-2 in an ultrasound flow phantom showed an 8-fold increase in mean acoustic signal relative to casein-coated control channels. In an in vivo model of tumor angiogenesis, scVEGF MB showed significantly higher ultrasound contrast signal enhancement in tumors (8.46 ± 1.61 dB) compared with nontargeted control MB (1.58 ± 0.83 dB). CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate the functionality of a novel scVEGF-bearing MB contrast agent, which could be useful for molecular imaging of VEGFR-2 in basic science and drug discovery research.

Analysis of in vitro transfection by sonoporation using cationic and neutral microbubbles.

The objective of the study was to examine the role of acoustic power intensity and microbubble and plasmid concentrations on transfection efficiency in HEK-293 cells using a sonoporator with a 1-MHz transducer. A green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter plasmid was delivered in as much as 80% of treated cells, and expression of the GFP protein was observed in as much as 75% of cells, using a power intensity of 2 W/cm(2) with a 25% duty cycle. In addition, the relative transfection abilities of a lipid noncationic and cationic microbubble platform were investigated. As a positive control, cells were transfected using Lipofectamine reagent. Cell survival and transfection efficiency were inversely proportional to acoustic power and microbubble concentration. Our results further demonstrated that high-efficiency transfection could be achieved, but at the expense of cell loss. Moreover, direct conjugation of plasmid to the microbubble did not appear to significantly enhance transfection efficiency under the examined conditions, although this strategy may be important for targeted transfection in vivo.