Shifting from glucose diagnosis to the new HbA1c diagnosis reduces the capability of the Finnish Diabetes Risk Score (FINDRISC) to screen for glucose abnormalities within a real-life primary healthcare preventive strategy.

BACKGROUND: To investigate differences in the performance of the Finnish Diabetes Risk Score (FINDRISC) as a screening tool for glucose abnormalities after shifting from glucose-based diagnostic criteria to the proposed new hemoglobin (Hb)A1c-based criteria. METHODS: A cross-sectional primary-care study was conducted as the first part of an active real-life lifestyle intervention to prevent type 2 diabetes within a high-risk Spanish Mediterranean population. Individuals without diabetes aged 45-75 years (n = 3,120) were screened using the FINDRISC. Where feasible, a subsequent 2-hour oral glucose tolerance test and HbA1c test were also carried out (n = 1,712). The performance of the risk score was calculated by applying the area under the curve (AUC) for the receiver operating characteristic, using three sets of criteria (2-hour glucose, fasting glucose, HbA1c) and three diagnostic categories (normal, pre-diabetes, diabetes). RESULTS: Defining diabetes by a single HbA1c measurement resulted in a significantly lower diabetes prevalence (3.6%) compared with diabetes defined by 2-hour plasma glucose (9.2%), but was not significantly lower than that obtained using fasting plasma glucose (3.1%). The FINDRISC at a cut-off of 14 had a reasonably high ability to predict diabetes using the diagnostic criteria of 2-hour or fasting glucose (AUC = 0.71) or all glucose abnormalities (AUC = 0.67 and 0.69, respectively). When HbA1c was used as the primary diagnostic criterion, the AUC for diabetes detection dropped to 0.67 (5.6% reduction in comparison with either 2-hour or fasting glucose) and fell to 0.55 for detection of all glucose abnormalities (17.9% and 20.3% reduction, respectively), with a relevant decrease in sensitivity of the risk score. CONCLUSIONS: A shift from glucose-based diagnosis to HbA1c-based diagnosis substantially reduces the ability of the FINDRISC to screen for glucose abnormalities when applied in this real-life primary-care preventive strategy.

Effect of Lipids on Diabetic Retinopathy in a Large Cohort of Diabetic Patients after 10 Years of Follow-Up.

(1) Background: Diabetic retinopathy (DR) remains the leading cause of low vision and blindness in young adults of working age. Although the most important risk factors-such as the duration of diabetes mellitus (DM) and glycemic control measured by HbA1c-are known, the effects of lipids are not as clear. The aim of the present study is to analyze the effects of lipids on the development of DR. (2) Methods: This is a retrospective study of a population of 175,645 DM2 patients, during the period 2010 to 2020, in which the effects of different lipid factors are studied. (3) Results: The variables that most influenced the development of DR in our study, based on significance and cumulative hazard (CH), were arterial hypertension (CH 1.217, p < 0.001), HbA1c levels (CH 1.162, p = 0.001), microalbuminuria (CH 1.012, p < 0.001), LDL-C cholesterol (CH 1.007, p = 0.012), TC/HDL-C index (CH 1.092, p < 0.001), No-HDL-C/HDL-C index (CH 1.065, p = 0.002), the use of statins (CH 1.001, p = 0.005), and body mass index (CH 1.007, p < 0.001). (4) Conclusions: LDL-cholesterol, TC/HDL-C, and No-HDL-C/HDL-C indices are related to the development of DR, and there is a protective effect of HDL-cholesterol and the use of fibrates.

Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Metabolic Control of Diabetic Patients in Diabetic Retinopathy and Its Screening.

(1) Background: Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a complication of diabetes mellitus (DM), screening programs of which have been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. The aim of the present study was to determine the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the screening of diabetes patients in our healthcare area (HCA). (2) Methods: We carried out a retrospective study of patients with DM who had attended the DR screening program between January 2015 and June 2022. We studied attendance, DM metabolic control and DR incidence. (3) Results: Screening for DR decreased in the first few months of the pandemic. The incidence of mild and moderate DR remained stable throughout the study, and we observed little increase in severe DR, proliferative DR and neovascular glaucoma during 2021 and 2022. (4) Conclusions: The current study shows that during the COVID-19 pandemic, screening program attendance decreased during the year 2020, which then recovered in 2021. Regarding the most severe forms of DR, a slight increase in cases was observed, beginning in the year 2021. Nevertheless, we aimed to improve the telemedicine systems, since the conditions of a significant proportion of the studied patients worsened during the pandemic; these patients are likely those who were already poorly monitored.

Rationale and design of the PREDICE project: cost-effectiveness of type 2 diabetes prevention among high-risk Spanish individuals following lifestyle intervention in real-life primary care setting.

BACKGROUND: Type 2 diabetes is an important preventable disease and a growing public health problem. Based on information provided by clinical trials, we know that Type 2 diabetes can be prevented or delayed by lifestyle intervention. In view of translating the findings of diabetes prevention research into real-life it is necessary to carry out community-based evaluations so as to learn about the feasibility and effectiveness of locally designed and implemented programmes. The aim of this project was to assess the effectiveness of an active real-life primary care strategy in high-risk individuals for developing diabetes, and then evaluate its efficiency. METHODS/DESIGN: Cost-Effectiveness analysis of the DE-PLAN (Diabetes in Europe - Prevention using Lifestyle, physical Activity and Nutritional intervention) project when applied to a Mediterranean population in Catalonia (DE-PLAN-CAT). Multicenter, longitudinal cohort assessment (4 years) conducted in 18 primary health-care centres (Catalan Health Institute). Individuals without diabetes aged 45-75 years were screened using the Finnish Diabetes Risk Score - FINDRISC - questionnaire and a 2-h oral glucose tolerance test. All high risk tested individuals were invited to participate in either a usual care intervention (information on diet and cardiovascular health without individualized programme), or the intensive DE-PLAN educational program (individualized or group) periodically reinforced. Oral glucose tolerance test was repeated yearly to determine diabetes incidence. Besides measuring the accumulated incidence of diabetes, information was collected on economic impact of the interventions in both cohorts (using direct and indirect cost questionnaires) and information on utility measures (Quality Adjusted Life Years). A cost-utility and a cost-effectiveness analysis will be performed and data will be modelled to predict long-term cost-effectiveness. DISCUSSION: The project was intended to evidence that a substantial reduction in Type 2 diabetes incidence can be obtained at a reasonable cost-effectiveness ratio in real-life primary health care setting by an intensive lifestyle intervention. As far as we know, the DE-PLAN-CAT/PREDICE project represents the first assessment of long-term effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of a public healthcare strategy to prevent diabetes within a European primary care setting.

Feasibility and Effectiveness of Electrochemical Dermal Conductance Measurement for the Screening of Diabetic Neuropathy in Primary Care. Decoding Study (Dermal Electrochemical Conductance in Diabetic Neuropathy).

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is the leading cause of polyneuropathy in the Western world. Diabetic neuropathy (DNP) is the most common complication of diabetes and is of great clinical significance mainly due to the pain and the possibility of ulceration in the lower limbs. Early detection of neuropathy is essential in the medical management of this complication. Early unmyelinated C-fiber dysfunction is one of the typical findings of diabetic neuropathy and the first clinical manifestation of dysfunction indicating sudomotor eccrine gland impairment. In order to assess newly developed technology for the measurement of dermal electrochemical conductance (DEC), we analyzed the feasibility and effectiveness of DEC (quantitative expression of sudomotor reflex) as a screening test of DNP in primary health care centers. The study included 197 people (with type 2 diabetes, prediabetes and normal tolerance) who underwent all the protocol tests and electromyography (EMG). On comparing DEC with EMG as the gold standard, the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC, area under the curve) was 0.58 in the whole sample, AUC = 0.65 in the diabetes population and AUC = 0.72 in prediabetes, being irrelevant in subjects without glucose disturbances (AUC = 0.47). Conclusions: In usual clinical practice, DEC is feasible, with moderate sensitivity but high specificity. It is also easy to use and interpret and requires little training, thereby making it a good screening test in populations with diabetes and prediabetes. It may also be useful in screening general populations at risk of neuropathy.

Metabolic syndrome as a cardiovascular disease risk factor: patients evaluated in primary care.

To estimate the prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MS) in a population receiving attention in primary care centers (PCC) we selected a random cohort of ostensibly normal subjects from the registers of 5 basic-health area (BHA) PCC. Diagnosis of MS was with the WHO, NCEP and IDF criteria. Variables recorded were: socio-demographic data, CVD risk factors including lipids, obesity, diabetes, blood pressure and smoking habit and a glucose tolerance test outcome. Of the 720 individuals selected (age 60.3 +/- 11.5 years), 431 were female, 352 hypertensive, 142 diabetic, 233 pre-diabetic, 285 obese, 209 dyslipemic and 106 smokers. CVD risk according to the Framingham and REGICOR calculation was 13.8 +/- 10% and 8.8 +/- 9.8%, respectively. Using the WHO, NCEP and IDF criteria, MS was diagnosed in 166, 210 and 252 subjects, respectively and the relative risk of CVD complications in MS subjects was 2.56. Logistic regression analysis indicated that the MS components (WHO set), the MS components (IDF set) and the female gender had an increased odds ratio for CVD of 3.48 (95CI%: 2.26-5.37), 2.28 (95%CI: 1.84-4.90) and 2.26 (95%CI: 1.48-3.47), respectively. We conclude that MS and concomitant CVD risk is high in ostensibly normal population attending primary care clinics, and this would necessarily impinge on resource allocation in primary care.

Feasibility and effectiveness of electrochemical dermal conductance measurement for the screening of diabetic neuropathy in primary care. DECODING Study (Dermal Electrochemical Conductance in Diabetic Neuropathy). Rationale and design.

Diabetes mellitus is the leading cause of polyneuropathy in the Western world. Diabetic neuropathy is a frequent complication of diabetes and may have great clinical transcendence due to pain and possible ulceration of the lower extremities. It is also a relevant cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with diabetes. Although the cause of polyneuropathy in patients with diabetes is only partially known, it has been associated with chronic hyperglycemia suggesting the possible etiopathogenic implication of advanced glycosylation end products. The strategy of choice in the medical management of diabetic neuropathy is early detection since glycaemic control and the use of certain drugs may prevent or slow the development of this disease. Diabetic neuropathy most often presents with a dysfunction of unmyelinated C-fibers, manifested as an alteration of the sweat reflex of the eccrine glands. This dysfunction can now be demonstrated using a newly developed technology which measures dermal electrochemical conductivity. This noninvasive test is easy and cost-effective. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the feasibility and effectiveness of dermal electrochemical conductance measurement (quantitative expression of the sudomotor reflex) as a screening test for the diagnosis of diabetic neuropathy in patients in primary care.

The incorporation of family physicians in the assessment of diabetic retinopathy by non-mydriatic fundus camera.

AIMS: To evaluate the inclusion of family physicians in screening for diabetic retinopathy. METHODS: We evaluated by non-mydriatic fundus camera 2779 diabetic patients. The family physicians made an initial evaluation of the fundus and pathological images were sent to a reference ophthalmologist. An audit was taken of all the patients at the end of the study. We analysed the concordance in: diabetic retinopathy, diabetic macular edema, and lesions in the macular area. RESULTS: Diabetic retinopathy was observed in 226 patients (8.1%) and diabetic macular edema in 40 patients (1.4%). Other retinal pathologies were diagnosed in 291 (11.0%). The sensitivity of the study was 95.2% for diabetic retinopathy, 96.0% for macular lesions and 92.9% for diabetic macular edema. The specificity was above 98% in the three studied variables. Cohen's Kappa coefficient was 0.82 for diabetic retinopathy, 0.81 for diabetic macular edema and 0.96 for macular lesions. CONCLUSIONS: The inclusion of family physicians in the screening system seems to be effective in the diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy.