Transverse myelitis associated with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE-TM): A review article.

Systemic lupus erythematosus-related transverse myelitis (SLE-TM) is a rare but serious complication of SLE, which may result in significant morbidity. Its incidence is estimated between 0.5% and 1% of all SLE patients but may be the presenting feature in 30%-60% of these patients. Unfortunately, due to lack of high-quality studies, data regarding this condition remains limited. Its pathogenesis remains largely unknown and clinical presentation is variable. There are still no set guidelines regarding diagnosis, management, or monitoring and the role of autoantibodies remains controversial. In this review, we aim to summarize the available data regarding the epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, management, and prognosis of this rare disease.

Abdominal arterial lesions associated with antiphospholipid antibodies: a comparative cross-sectional magnetic resonance angiography study.

OBJECTIVE: Case reports and small case series suggest that stenotic lesions of the renal, coeliac and mesenteric arteries may occur in the antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) resulting in clinical consequences such as hypertension and abdominal angina. The objective was to determine the prevalence of stenotic lesions in arteries arising from the middle aorta in patients with antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) compared with healthy, hypertensive and atherosclerotic controls. METHODS: In a cross-sectional comparative radiological study using magnetic resonance angiography (MRA), we assessed five groups of subjects for the prevalence of stenotic lesions in arteries arising from the middle aorta: APS/aPL positive, healthy renal donors, patients with hypertension, patients with atherosclerosis defined radiologically and patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and vasculitis who were negative for aPL. All subjects underwent MRA in suspended respiration and images were assessed by two senior radiologists blinded to the clinical details. RESULTS: In the atherosclerosis group, vascular stenotic lesions were more prevalent (71%) than in any other group (P ≤0.000002). The prevalence of all stenotic lesions in aPL positive patients (33%) was significantly higher than in the renal donors (18%) and hypertensive patients (19%) (P ≤0.009). Renal artery stenosis was significantly more prevalent in aPL positive patients than in renal donors (P ≤0.0006) but similar to the prevalence in hypertensive patients. Coeliac and/or mesenteric lesions were significantly more common in aPL positive patients vs hypertensive patients (P ≤0.001). Stenoses did not correlate with traditional risk factors. CONCLUSION: Arterial stenotic lesions in arteries arising from the middle aorta were highly prevalent in atherosclerotic subjects and were more common in aPL-positive patients than in hypertensive patients and healthy renal donors.

Proton pump inhibitor induced subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus: Clinical characteristics and outcomes.

BACKGROUND: There is a growing literature reporting the association between proton pump inhibitor (PPI) use and subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus (SCLE). AIMS: To compare the clinical characteristics of a cohort of patients with PPI-induced SCLE, their clinical course and treatment with a control group of primary SCLE patients not exposed to PPI. METHODS: We conducted a matched case-control study in a tertiary referral setting at the Louise Coote Lupus Unit. There were 64 SCLE patients: 36 with PPI-induced SCLE and 28 patients with primary SCLE. RESULTS: Twenty-six patients (72%) had pre-existing SLE in the PPI-induced SCLE group. Lower limb skin lesions were significantly more prevalent in the PPI group (p < 0.0001). The prevalence of anti-Ro and anti-Ro-52 antibodies was numerically higher in the PPI group (64% and 60%), respectively, compared with 46% and 42% in the primary SCLE group. Peripheral blood eosinophils were normal in all patients in the PPI group. Thirteen patients underwent skin biopsy in the PPI group and 12 had histology in keeping with SCLE. The median time to presentation was 8 months with a median resolution period of 6 weeks. PPIs were stopped in 34 patients, while 2 patients continued treatment for other clinical indications. Twelve patients received concurrent oral corticosteroids. Two patients had severe SCLE in the form of Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis requiring critical care admission and were managed with corticosteroids, IV immunoglobulin and/or belimumab. CONCLUSION: Lower limb involvement is a pointer to PPI-induced SCLE which is likely a class effect with all PPI.

Physician-patient interaction and medication adherence in lupus nephritis.

OBJECTIVE: The quality of physician-patient interaction can have a significant impact on medication adherence. Little is known about this relationship in patients with lupus nephritis. METHODS: A cross-sectional, quantitative study. Data collected included demographics, current medication, systemic lupus erythematosus disease activity index, medication adherence, beliefs about medicines, shared decision-making, patient-doctor depth of relationship, patient-doctor quality of relationship, interpersonal trust in a physician and illness perceptions. RESULTS: Ninety-eight patients with lupus nephritis completed the questionnaires. Logistic regression indicated that medication adherence was significantly predicted by (a) interpersonal trust in a physician (B = 0.85, Wald 3.94, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.01, 5.44; P = 0.05); (b) timeline cyclical (B = -0.89, Wald 4.95, 95% CI 0.19, 0.90; P < 0.05) and beliefs about the necessity of medicines (B = 0.75, Wald 4.14, 95% CI 1.03, 4.38; P < 0.05). Mediation analysis showed that beliefs about the necessity of medicines significantly mediated the relationship between trust and medication adherence when adjusted for age (B = 0.48, 95% CI 0.06, 1.08; P < 0.01). A further mediation analysis showed that patient-doctor depth of relationship (B = 0.05, 95% CI 0.01, 0.09; P < 0.001), shared decision-making (B = 0.07, 95% CI 0.01, 0.13; P < 0.001) and patient-doctor quality of relationship (B = 0.08, 95% CI 0.01, 0.16; P < 0.001) significantly mediated the relationship between illness coherence and interpersonal trust in a physician. CONCLUSION: The findings highlighted two key elements: (a) the importance of trust in relation to medication adherence; and (b) a good understanding of patients' illness is linked to a better relationship with their doctor and greater participation in shared decision-making which is associated with increased trust. Tailored psycho-educational interventions could contribute to improving the patient-doctor relationship quality, trust and increased shared decision-making, which, in turn, might improve medication adherence in patients with lupus nephritis.

Pregnancy outcome in patients with systemic vasculitis: a single-centre matched case-control study.

OBJECTIVE: To study the outcome of pregnancy in patients with systemic vasculitis (SV) compared with age-, BMI- and ethnicity-matched healthy pregnant controls. METHODS: Fifty-one pregnancies in 29 SV patients were retrospectively studied. There were nine patients with granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA), three with eosinophilic GPA, seven with Takayasu's arteritis, two with ANCA-positive vasculitis with renal involvement, two with Behçet's disease, three with urticarial vasculitis, one with primary cerebral vasculitis, one with relapsing polychondritis and one with IgA vasculitis. BVAS and the vasculitis damage index were evaluated retrospectively. Sixty-two healthy women with 156 pregnancies matched in a 2:1 ratio for age, BMI and ethnicity formed the control group. RESULTS: Median gestational age at delivery was lower in the SV group: 36 weeks and 2 days (34-42) vs controls 40 (37-42) weeks (P < 0.03). Median birth weight in the SV group was 3.0 kg (2.0-5.2), whereas that of the controls was 3.5 (2.28-4.32) kg (P = 0.004). The median customized birth weight centile was 38.6 in the SV group and 37.2 in the control group. In the SV group, 9 patients had 13 miscarriages, 3 had pre-eclampsia, and 2 had an intrauterine death. In the control group, 20 patients had 27 miscarriages, 1 had pre-eclamptic toxaemia, and 1 had an antepartum haemorrhage. Eight patients with SV flared during pregnancy and 11 flared after delivery. CONCLUSION: Patients with SV had a lower median gestational age, but customized birth weights were similar to those of healthy women. Women with SV may flare during pregnancy and the post-partum period and may experience significant pregnancy morbidity.

Autoimmune rheumatic disease and sleep: a review.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Sleep has an important role to play in the human immune system and it is critical in the restoration and maintenance of homeostasis. Sleep deprivation and disorders may have a profound impact on health, well being and the ability to resist infection. Autoimmune rheumatic diseases are multisystem disorders that involve complicated hormonal and immunological pathophysiology. Previous studies have suggested that sleep deprivation may lead to immunological disturbance in experimental mouse models. RECENT FINDINGS: Sleep disorders may trigger immune system abnormalities inducing autoantibody production, possibly leading to the development of autoimmune disease such as systemic lupus erythematosus, scleroderma or rheumatoid arthritis. Indeed, in experimental models, it has been suggested that sleep deprivation may induce the onset of autoimmune disease. SUMMARY: Chronic deprivation of sleep is common in modern society and has been seen in various autoimmune inflammatory rheumatic diseases. We have reviewed various aspects of sleep deprivation and sleep apnoea syndrome, and their effects on the immune system and their relevance to autoimmune diseases. We hope that these data will encourage greater awareness of the role that improved sleep hygiene may play in the management of these rheumatic diseases.

Livedo Reticularis: An Enigma.

Livedo reticularis is a common cutaneous manifestation of APS and may be a prognostic marker of more severe disease. It is associated with arterial and venous thrombosis and pregnancy morbidity irrespective of the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies. Recent results suggest the possibility of an association with accelerated atherosclerosis in patients with livedo. Given the similarities between APS and livedo (aPL negative), experts in this field believe that livedo may represent the so-called seronegative antiphospholipid syndrome, although the exact relationship of livedo with seronegative APS remains to be elucidated. LV may present as painful cutaneous ulcers that are often difficult to treat. The underlying pathology involves prothrombotic as well as immunological processes with some overlap with APS. Treatment remains challenging and results are often variable.

Lupus Nephritis Outcomes after Stopping Immunosuppression.

Background/Objectives: Immunosuppression (IS) is a standard therapy for lupus nephritis (LN). Data on the outcomes of patients with LN after the discontinuation of immunosuppression remain uncertain. This study aimed to evaluate the outcomes and results of patients with lupus nephritis (LN) who ceased immunosuppressive (IS) therapy. Methods: Records were obtained on the clinical and laboratory features of LN patients who were treated at our Lupus Unit. They included median values and ranges for various numerical variables such as patient age, disease duration, and treatment duration. Categorical variables such as gender, LN class, IS treatment type, and patient outcomes, which were categorized as either "stable" or "flare experienced", were presented as percentages and frequencies. A flare in LN was characterized by a two-fold increase in serum creatinine levels and a rise in proteinuria following the cessation of IS medication. Results: Outcomes were assessed for 45 patients with LN who ceased IS therapy after achieving remission. The patients' median age was 55 years (29-78). The median duration of treatment was 4 years (0.5-14). The LN histology distribution was class V = 24.4%, class IV = 17.8 %, class III = 17.8%, class III + IV = 15.6%, class III + V = 6.7%, class IV + V = 2.2%, and class II + IV and II = 2.2%. At the discontinuation of IS treatment, creatinine levels were elevated in 9/45 (20%) patients. Furthermore, 28.9% of patients relapsed after IS treatment discontinuation. Patients with anti-Smith antibodies (anti-Sm) were observed to have a higher occurrence of relapses, with six patients experiencing flare compared to four patients who remained stable (p = 0.03). Five (38.5%) of the patients with flares had high creatinine levels after IS discontinuation. Conclusions: Most of our patients maintained clinical remission and stable levels of LN parameters after IS treatment discontinuation. Those with a high serum creatinine level, ongoing proteinuria, depleted complement levels, and the presence of anti-Sm antibodies were more likely to experience flares after the discontinuation of IS therapy.

B-cell depletion therapy and pregnancy outcome in severe, refractory systemic autoimmune diseases.

OBJECTIVE: To study the pregnancy outcome following Rituximab treatment before conception in patients with refractory autoimmune rheumatic diseases. METHODOLOGY: Five women with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and 1 woman with ANCA positive vasculitis fulfilling the respective ACR classification criteria were studied retrospectively when they became pregnant following rituximab treatment for refractory disease. Rituximab was given as a 1 g infusion together with 500 mg Methylprednisolone, on day 1 and day 15 after written informed consent. RESULTS: The median age was 34 (range 32-39) years and median disease duration was 10 (range 5-16) years. All the patients achieved complete B-cell depletion < 1 cell/µL at 1 month and <5 cells/µL at 6 months with prolonged B-cell depletion. Four women had successful pregnancies with median gestational age of 38 (range 31-40) weeks; median weight of the new born was 3.25 (range1.17-3.3) kg with no documented adverse neonatal events. One patient with lupus nephritis (LN) had a premature delivery and increasing proteinuria in the third trimester. One other patient with LN had a premature delivery and the new born had oesophageal atresia. CONCLUSION: We report a child with oesophageal atresia born to a mother with lupus nephritis who had received Rituximab 12 months prior to conception, while four other pregnancies in women with SLE resulted in morphologically normal children. We also describe the first report, to our knowledge, of a successful pregnancy outcome in a woman with granulomatosis with polyangiitis treated with rituximab.

The prevalence of abnormal pulse wave velocity, pulse contour analysis and ankle-brachial index in patients with livedo reticularis: a controlled study.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the prevalence of abnormal pulse wave velocity (PWV), pulse contour analysis (PCA) and abnormal ankle-brachial pressure index (ABPI) in patients with livedo reticularis (livedo) and without livedo. METHODS: We recruited 74 patients, of whom 41 had livedo: 16 APS, 9 APS with SLE and 16 with livedo (negative for aPL or lupus). The other group of 33 patients without livedo consisted of 10 APS, 8 APS with SLE and 15 with SLE only. Livedo was diagnosed and confirmed by a dermatologist. PWV was assessed in fasting patients by the Micro Medical PulseTrace analyser using a 4 MHz continuous-wave directional Doppler probe and digital PCA was analysed by Micro Medical PulseTrace by the same operator. Chi-square with Yates's correction was used for comparing results. RESULTS: The median age of the livedo patients was 46 (29-71) years and of the non-livedo patients was 45 (25-68) years. Abnormal values of PWV in 10/41 (24.40%), ABPI in 4/41 (9.8%) and PCA in 10/41 (24.40%) patients were observed in the livedo group and in the non-livedo group abnormal values of PWV in 1/33 (P ≤ 0.025), ABPI in 0/33 (P = NS) and PCA in 5/33 (P = NS) were observed. CONCLUSION: Patients with livedo reticularis are more likely to have abnormal PWV, indicating arterial stiffness.

Relapsing polychondritis - A single Centre study in the United Kingdom.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES: Relapsing Polychondritis (RP) is a rare immune mediated inflammatory disorder that may result in damage and destruction of cartilaginous tissues. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We retrospectively analysed patients with a clinical diagnosis of RP. Patients were investigated using pulmonary function tests, dynamic high-resolution CT scans, bronchoscopy, laryngoscopy and/or PET-CT scans along with autoimmune serology. Patients had other specialist reviews when indicated. RESULTS: We identified 68 patients with a diagnosis of RP, 55 (81%) were Caucasian, 8 (12%) Afro Caribbean, 4 (6%) Asian and 1 patient had Mixed Ethnicity. Twenty-nine (43%) had pulmonary involvement and in 16, pulmonary involvement was the initial presentation. The mean age at onset was 44 years (range 17-74). There was a mean diagnostic delay of 55 weeks. Sixty-six (97%) patients received a combination of oral Prednisolone and disease modifying anti-rheumatic drugs. Twelve of 19 (63%) received biologics, with an initial good response, and 10 remain on treatment. Eleven patients with respiratory collapse required CPAP to maintain airway patency. Twelve (18%) patients died due to RP and 9 had respiratory complications. Two patients developed myelodysplasia and one had lung carcinoma. In a multivariate regression analysis, the prognostic variables were ethnicity, nasal chondritis, laryngotracheal stricture and elevated serum creatinine. CONCLUSION: RP is a rare autoimmune condition often associated with significant delays in diagnosis and initiation of treatment. Pulmonary involvement in RP may cause significant morbidity and mortality due to organ damage. Disease modifying anti rheumatic drugs and biologics should be considered early in the disease course to minimise adverse effects of long-term corticosteroid therapy and organ damage.

Use of Glomerular CD68+ Cells as a Surrogate Marker for Endocapillary Hypercellularity in Lupus Nephritis.

Introduction: Lupus nephritis (LN) class III or IV is strongly related to patient mortality and morbidity. The interobserver agreement of endocapillary hypercellularity by routine light microscopy, one of the most important lesions determining whether class III or IV is present, is moderate. In IgA nephropathy (IgAN), the presence of glomerular CD68+ cells was found to be a good surrogate marker for endocapillary hypercellularity. We investigated whether the presence of glomerular CD68+ cells could serve as a surrogate marker for endocapillary hypercellularity as well in LN. Methods: A total of 92 LN biopsies were scored for the number of glomerular CD68+ cells using CD68 staining, including endocapillary hypercellularity and the activity index (AI). A new AI was calculated in which CD68+ cells replaced endocapillary hypercellularity. Clinical parameters were obtained from time of biopsy, 1 year after, and 2 years after. Results: The number of glomerular CD68+ cells significantly correlated with endocapillary hypercellularity. A cutoff value of 7 for the maximum number of CD68+ cells within 1 glomerulus in a biopsy yielded a sensitivity of 88% and a specificity of 67% for the presence of endocapillary hypercellularity. Both endocapillary hypercellularity and CD68+ cells correlated with renal function during follow-up. The current and the new AI correlated equally well with the clinical outcome. Conclusion: In LN, CD68+ cells can be used as a surrogate marker for endocapillary hypercellularity.

New use for an old treatment: Hydroxychloroquine as a potential treatment for systemic vasculitis.

Antimalarials have been an effective and safe treatment for autoimmune rheumatic diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus for more than a hundred years. There are surprisingly few reports of hydroxychloroquine use in the systemic vasculitides. Hydroxychloroquine has antithrombotic, cardiovascular, antimicrobial and antineoplastic effects, making it a potentially valuable treatment for patients with systemic vasculitis who are at risk of infections, malignancy and thrombotic events. We report the successful use of hydroxychloroquine in patients with ANCA vasculitis, Henoch Schonlein purpura/IgA vasculitis, Takayasu's arteritis and polyarteritis nodosa. We review the immunomodulatory mechanisms of action of hydroxychloroquine and the existing evidence for its use in the treatment of vasculitis, with a particular focus on ANCA subtypes.

Pulmonary artery aneurysms in Behçet's disease treated with anti-TNFα: A case series and review of the literature.

Behçet's disease (BD) is a systemic inflammatory disorder of unknown aetiology. Pulmonary haemorrhage from ruptured pulmonary artery aneurysms (PAA) in this condition carries a high mortality but treatment has largely been empiric with use of glucocorticoids and cyclophosphamide. Tumour necrosis factor α (TNF-α) was recently recognised as a mediator in the pathogenesis of BD inflammatory lesions. TNFα inhibitors have been shown in various case reports/series to have beneficial effects in uveoretinitis, entero-Behçet's, neuro-Behçet's and BD arthritis. We describe the efficacy and tolerability of infliximab in 2 patients with Behçet's disease complicated by pulmonary vasculitis admitted to our unit during the years 2004-2015, and discuss the previously published data in this area.

Antiphospholipid (Hughes) syndrome: beyond pregnancy morbidity and thrombosis.

The antiphospholipid syndrome is an autoimmune disease characterised by recurrent arterial or venous thrombosis, pregnancy morbidity and the persistence of positive antiphospholipid antibodies. Many other clinical manifestations may occur including heart valve disease, livedo reticularis, thrombocytopenia and neurological manifestations such as migraine and seizures. We review a number of other manifestations including stenotic lesions, coronary artery disease and accelerated atherosclerosis, skeletal disorders and the concept of seronegative antiphospholipid syndrome.