Comparison of In Vivo and Ex Vivo MRI of the Human Hippocampal Formation in the Same Subjects.

Multiple techniques for quantification of hippocampal subfields from in vivo MRI have been proposed. Linking in vivo MRI to the underlying histology can help validate and improve these techniques. High-resolution ex vivo MRI can provide an intermediate modality to map information between these very different imaging modalities. This article evaluates the ability to match information between in vivo and ex vivo MRI in the same subjects. We perform rigid and deformable registration on 10 pairs of in vivo (3 T, 0.4 × 0.4 × 2.6 mm3) and ex vivo (9.4 T, 0.2 × 0.2 × 0.2 mm3) scans, and describe differences in MRI appearance between these modalities qualitatively and quantitatively. The feasibility of using this dataset to validate in vivo segmentation is evaluated by applying an automatic hippocampal subfield segmentation technique (ASHS) to in vivo scans and comparing SRLM (stratum/radiatum/lacunosum/moleculare) surface to manual tracing on corresponding ex vivo scans (and in 2 cases, histology). Regional increases in thickness are detected in ex vivo scans adjacent to the ventricles and were not related to scanner, resolution differences, or susceptibility artefacts. Satisfactory in vivo/ex vivo registration and subvoxel accuracy of ASHS segmentation of hippocampal SRLM demonstrate the feasibility of using this dataset for validation, and potentially, improvement of in vivo segmentation methods.

Downstream effects of polypathology on neurodegeneration of medial temporal lobe subregions.

The medial temporal lobe (MTL) is a nidus for neurodegenerative pathologies and therefore an important region in which to study polypathology. We investigated associations between neurodegenerative pathologies and the thickness of different MTL subregions measured using high-resolution post-mortem MRI. Tau, TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43), amyloid-ß and α-synuclein pathology were rated on a scale of 0 (absent)-3 (severe) in the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex (ERC) of 58 individuals with and without neurodegenerative diseases (median age 75.0 years, 60.3% male). Thickness measurements in ERC, Brodmann Area (BA) 35 and 36, parahippocampal cortex, subiculum, cornu ammonis (CA)1 and the stratum radiatum lacunosum moleculare (SRLM) were derived from 0.2 × 0.2 × 0.2 mm3 post-mortem MRI scans of excised MTL specimens from the contralateral hemisphere using a semi-automated approach. Spearman's rank correlations were performed between neurodegenerative pathologies and thickness, correcting for age, sex and hemisphere, including all four proteinopathies in the model. We found significant associations of (1) TDP-43 with thickness in all subregions (r = - 0.27 to r = - 0.46), and (2) tau with BA35 (r = - 0.31) and SRLM thickness (r = - 0.33). In amyloid-ß and TDP-43 negative cases, we found strong significant associations of tau with ERC (r = - 0.40), BA35 (r = - 0.55), subiculum (r = - 0.42) and CA1 thickness (r = - 0.47). This unique dataset shows widespread MTL atrophy in relation to TDP-43 pathology and atrophy in regions affected early in Braak stageing and tau pathology. Moreover, the strong association of tau with thickness in early Braak regions in the absence of amyloid-ß suggests a role of Primary Age-Related Tauopathy in neurodegeneration.

Spinal cord neurofibrillary pathology in Alzheimer disease and Guam Parkinsonism-dementia complex.

We examined spinal cords of neurodegenerative disease patients and controls living on the Island of Guam and in the continental United States. These patients had pathologically confirmed parkinsonism dementia-complex (PDC) with or without amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), or Alzheimer disease (AD), respectively. Nearly all of the spinal cords examined from both groups of patients contained neurofibrillary tangles (NFT). The immunohistochemical profile of these NFTs indicates that they are composed of hyperphosphorylated tau protein like their counterparts in the brains of these patients. Western blot analysis confirmed this by revealing that sarcosyl insoluble tau in spinal cord extracts from patients with NFTs exhibited the presence of all 6 tau isoforms similar to that from AD and ALS/PDC cortical gray matter.

Distribution of tau proteins in the normal human central and peripheral nervous system.

In human brain, antibodies to tau proteins primarily label abnormal rather than normal structures. This might reflect altered immunoreactivity owing to post-mortem proteolysis, disease, or species differences. We addressed this issue by comparing the distribution of tau in bovine and human post-mortem nervous system tissues and in human neural cell lines, using new monoclonal antibodies (MAb) specific for phosphate-independent epitopes in bovine and human tau. In neocortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum, immunoreactive tau was widely expressed but segregated into the axon-neuropil domain of neurons. In spinal cord and peripheral nervous system, tau immunoreactivity was similarly segregated but less abundant. No immunoreactive tau was detected with our MAb in glial cells or in human neural cell lines that express neurofilament or glial filament proteins. Post-mortem delays in tissue denaturation of less than 24 hr did not affect the distribution of tau, but the method used to denature tissues did, i.e., microwave treatment preserved tau immunoreactivity more effectively than chemical fixatives such as Bouin's solution, and formalin-fixed tissue samples reacted poorly with our anti-tau MAb. We conclude that the distribution of tau proteins in human nervous system is similar to that described in perfusion-fixed experimental animals, and that visualization of normal immunoreactive tau in human tissues is critically dependent on the procedures used to denature post-mortem tissue samples. Furthermore, microenvironmental factors in different neuroanatomical sites may affect the regional expression of tau.

Distribution of phosphate-independent MAP2 epitopes revealed with monoclonal antibodies in microwave-denatured human nervous system tissues.

In contrast with results obtained in experimental animals, antibodies to microtubule associated protein-2 (MAP2) preferentially label abnormal structures in human nervous system tissue samples, but the normal sites at which MAP2 is expressed are not well-defined. To determine the distribution of MAP2 in the human central (CNS) and peripheral (PNS) nervous systems, we prepared monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) specific to MAP2, and compared the localization of this MAP in postmortem bovine and human tissues as well as in several human neural cell lines that express either neurofilament (NF) or glial filament (GF) proteins. Eight MAbs specific for phosphate-independent epitopes in bovine and human MAP2 were obtained, and those that performed well in tissues produced immunoreactivity confined to the somatodendritic domain of neurons in bovine and human CNS and PNS tissues. Other neural cells (e.g. astrocytes) did not express MAP2 immunoreactivity using these MAbs. Postmortem delays of less than 24 h prior to tissue denaturation did not affect the distribution of MAP2 immunoreactivity. However, microwave denaturation of these tissues preserved MAP2 immunoreactivity better than fixation with Bouin's solution or formalin. Microwave treatment also improved the immunoreactivity of several MAbs for NF and GF proteins. Finally, MAP2 was not detected in human neural cell lines that express NF (2) or GF (1) proteins. We conclude that microwave denaturation provides an effective means to preserve the immunoreactivity of normal human neuronal cytoskeletal proteins, and that this method of tissue denaturation allows the normal distribution of MAP2 to be defined in postmortem samples of human CNS and PNS tissues.

Differential expression and distribution of alpha-, beta-, and gamma-synuclein in the developing human substantia nigra.

Although the functions of alpha-, beta-, and gamma-synuclein (alphaS, betaS, gammaS, respectively) are unknown, these synaptic proteins are implicated in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD) and related disorders. For example, alphaS forms Lewy bodies (LBs) in substantia nigra (SN) neurons of PD. However, since it is not known how these hallmark PD lesions contribute to the degeneration of SN neurons or what the normal function of alphaS is in SN neurons, we studied the developing human SN from 11 weeks gestational age (GA) to 16 years of age using immunohistochemistry and antibodies to alphaS, betaS, gammaS, other synaptic proteins, and tyrosine hydoxylase (TH). SN neurons expressed TH at 11 weeks GA and alphaS, betaS, and gammaS appeared initially at 15, 17, and 18 weeks GA, respectively. These synucleins first appeared in perikarya of SN neurons after synaptophysin, but about the same time as synaptotagmin and synaptobrevin. Redistribution of alphaS from perikarya to processes of SN neurons occurred by 18 weeks GA in parallel with synaptophysin, while betaS and synaptotagmin were redistributed similarly between 20 and 28 weeks GA and this also occurred with gammaS and synaptobrevin between 33 weeks GA and 9 months postnatal. These data suggest that alphaS, betaS, and gammaS may play a functional role in the development and maturation of SN neurons, but it remains to be determined how sequestration of alphaS as LBs in PD contributes to the degeneration of SN neurons.

PP2A mRNA expression is quantitatively decreased in Alzheimer's disease hippocampus.

Since abnormal tau phosphorylation may play a role in neurofibrillary tangle (NFT) formation in aging and Alzheimer's disease (AD), we probed the distribution and abundance of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) catalytic (Calpha) and regulatory (PR55alpha and gamma, PR61varepsilon and delta) subunit mRNA in control and AD hippocampus using in situ hybridization. Quantitation of grain density per neuron area of PP2A subunits and beta-actin was determined for the CA3 region of hippocampus and cerebellum, while a qualitative assessment was performed for CA1, CA4, and dentate gyrus. All subunits are expressed in neurons, while PR55gamma and PR55alpha mRNA are also evident in glia. The expression levels of Calpha, all PP2A regulatory subunits studied, and beta-actin were similar in control and AD cerebellum. beta-Actin mRNA was, however, reduced in AD hippocampus. In addition to the generalized reduction of mRNA, as indicated by decreased beta-actin signal, there was a significant loss of Calpha, PR55gamma, and PR61epsilon mRNA in the CA3 hippocampus of AD. This study delineates the distribution of critical PP2A mRNAs and reveals a neuron- and subunit-specific reduction in PP2A catalytic and regulatory mRNA in AD hippocampus. This could result in decreased protein expression and phosphatase activity, leading to the hyperphosphorylation of tau and the formation of NFTs, as well as neuron degeneration in AD.

CDX1 protein expression in normal, metaplastic, and neoplastic human alimentary tract epithelium.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: CDX1 is an intestine-specific transcription factor expressed early in intestinal development that may be involved in regulation of proliferation and differentiation of intestinal epithelial cells. We examined the pattern of CDX1 protein expression in metaplastic and neoplastic tissue to provide insight into its possible role in abnormal differentiation. METHODS: Tissue samples were stained by immunohistochemistry using an affinity-purified, polyclonal antibody against a peptide epitope of CDX1. RESULTS: Specific nuclear staining was found in epithelial cells of the small intestine and colon. Esophagus and stomach did not express CDX1 protein; however, adjacent areas of intestinal metaplastic tissue intensely stained for CDX1. Adenocarcinomas of the stomach and esophagus had both positive and negative nuclear staining for CDX1. Colonic epithelial cells in adenomatous polyps and adenocarcinomas had a decreased intensity of staining compared with normal colonic crypts in the same specimen. CONCLUSIONS: CDX1 may be important in the transition from normal gastric and esophageal epithelium to intestinal-type metaplasia. The variability in expression of CDX1 in gastric and esophageal adenocarcinomas suggests more than one pathway in the development of these carcinomas. The decrease of CDX1 in colonic adenocarcinomas may indicate a role for CDX1 in growth regulation and in the maintenance of the differentiated phenotype.

Amyloid plaques in Guam amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/parkinsonism-dementia complex contain species of A beta similar to those found in the amyloid plaques of Alzheimer's disease and pathological aging.

The Guamanian amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/parkinsonism-dementia complex (ALS/PDC) is characterized by abundant neurofibrillary pathology and neuron loss. In contrast to Alzheimer's disease (AD), where extensive neurofibrillary lesions always occur with deposits of A beta in numerous amyloid plaques, A beta-rich amyloid plaques are absent or rare in most ALS/PDC patients. To characterize the amyloid plaques in the latter patients, we probed plaque-rich sections of their brains by immunohistochemistry using well-characterized antibodies to specific epitopes in the N and C termini of A beta as well as to defined epitopes in hyperphosphorylated tau (PHFtau). The results indicate that the species of A beta in the amyloid plaques of ALS/PDC patients resemble those detected in the amyloid plaques of cognitively intact subjects with pathological aging as well as patients with AD. However, the paucity of PHFtau-positive neurites in the ALS/PDC plaques suggests that they reflect pathological aging rather than AD.

The fluorescent Congo red derivative, (trans, trans)-1-bromo-2,5-bis-(3-hydroxycarbonyl-4-hydroxy)styrylbenzene (BSB), labels diverse beta-pleated sheet structures in postmortem human neurodegenerative disease brains.

A novel Congo red-derived fluorescent probe (trans, trans),-1-bromo-2,5-bis-(3-hydroxycarbonyl-4-hydroxy)styrylbenzene (BSB) that binds to amyloid plaques of postmortem Alzheimer's disease brains and in transgenic mouse brains in vivo was designed as a prototype imaging agent for Alzheimer's disease. In the current study, we used BSB to probe postmortem tissues from patients with various neurodegenerative diseases with diagnostic lesions characterized by fibrillar intra- or extracellular lesions and compared these results with standard histochemical dyes such as thioflavin S and immunohistochemical stains specific for the same lesions. These data show that BSB binds not only to extracellular amyloid beta protein, but also many intracellular lesions composed of abnormal tau and synuclein proteins and suggests that radioiodinated BSB derivatives or related ligands may be useful imaging agents to monitor diverse amyloids in vivo.