Polygenic risk, childhood abuse and gene x environment interactions with depression development from middle to late adulthood: A U.S. national life-course study.

OBJECTIVE: Utilizing national longitudinal data, this study examines how polygenic depression risk and childhood abuse interactively influence the life-course development of depressive conditions from middle to late adulthood. METHOD: Data from 7512 participants (4323 females and 3189 males) of European ancestry aged 51-90, retrieved from the U.S. Health and Retirement Study (1992-2020), were analyzed. Childhood physical abuse and polygenic depression score were the primary predictors. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression (CESD) scale, and clinical depression risk was a binary indicator. Growth-curve linear mixed and logit mixed-effects models were conducted for analysis. RESULTS: Increasing polygenic depression scores were associated with elevated CES-D levels and potential risks of clinical depression. Males experienced more detrimental effects of childhood abuse on depression development from ages 51 to 90 years. In contract, non-maltreated females generally exhibited higher depressive symptoms and clinical depression risk than males. A significant interactive effect was found between polygenic depression risk and childhood abuse among males. Higher depression levels and clinical risk were observed with increasing polygenic depression score among maltreated males, surpassing those of females with standardized polygenic score ≥0 from age 51 to 90 years. CONCLUSIONS: The interaction between childhood abuse and genetic factors significantly shaped lifelong depression trajectories in males, while the negative impact of abusive parenting remained constant regardless of polygenic depression risk among females. Individualized prevention and intervention strategies could be crucial in mitigating lifelong depression development, especially for high-genetic-risk males with a history of childhood physical abuse.

Examining the Biological Impacts of Parent-Child Relationship Dynamics on Preschool-Aged Children who have Experienced Adversity.

Parent-child relationship dynamics have been shown to predict socioemotional and behavioral outcomes for children, but little is known about how they may affect biological development. The aim of this study was to test if observational assessments of parent-child relationship dynamics (cohesion, enmeshment, and disengagement) were associated with three biological indices of early life adversity and downstream health risk: (1) methylation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1), (2) telomere attrition, and (3) mitochondrial biogenesis, indexed by mitochondrial DNA copy number (mtDNAcn), all of which were measured in children's saliva. We tested hypotheses using a sample of 254 preschool-aged children (M age = 51.04 months) with and without child welfare-substantiated maltreatment (52% with documented case of moderate-severe maltreatment) who were racially and ethnically diverse (17% Black, 40% White, 23% biracial, and 20% other races; 45% Hispanic) and from primarily low-income backgrounds (91% qualified for public assistance). Results of path analyses revealed that: (1) higher parent-child cohesion was associated with lower levels of methylation of NR3C1 exon 1D and longer telomeres, and (2) higher parent-child disengagement was associated with higher levels of methylation of NR3C1 exon 1D and shorter telomeres. Results suggest that parent-child relationship dynamics may have distinct biological effects on children.

Child-focused infant and early childhood mental health consultation: Shifting adult attributions to reduce the risk for preschool expulsion.

Infant and early childhood mental health consultation (IECMHC) in early care and education (ECE) settings is a promising approach to support young children. Although research on the effects of IECMHC is encouraging, it is limited by the complexities of the systems in which IECMHC is implemented and the variability in IECMHC models. The current study aims to clearly articulate a statewide, child-focused, short-term IECMHC model, assess consultee satisfaction, examine the effects of consultation on children's functioning in the school and home settings, and evaluate changes in teacher perceptions associated with expulsion risk following consultation. In total, 268 children ages 1-5 (69% White, 75% male) and their family and school caregivers participated in consultation in a New England state, and 95 children and caregivers were included in an evaluation subsample. Of this subsample, teachers and ECE administrators, but not families, indicated significant improvement in children's functioning from referral to end of consultation. There was also a significant decrease in children's risk of expulsion, as measured by teachers' perceptions associated with expulsion decisions. This study contributes to the IECMHC literature by providing results specific to a child-focused model of consultation and highlighting the possible role of adult attributions for children in ECE.

La consulta de salud mental infantil y la temprana niñez (IECMHC) en los entornos de cuidados y educación tempranos (ECE) es un acercamiento prometedor para apoyar a los niños pequeños. A pesar de que la investigación sobre los efectos de IECMHC es alentadora, está limitada por las complejidades de los sistemas dentro de los cuales se implementa IECMHC y la variabilidad en los modelos de IECMHC. El presente estudio se propone articular claramente un modelo de IECMHC para todo el estado, con enfoque en el niño y a corto plazo, evaluar la satisfacción que quienes participan de la consulta, examinar los efectos de la consulta sobre el funcionamiento de los niños en la escuela y en el entorno del hogar, así como evaluar los cambios en las percepciones de los maestros asociadas con los riesgos de expulsión después de la consulta. En total, 268 niños de edad 1­5 (69% blancos, 75% varones) y sus familias y quienes les cuidaba en la escuela participaron en la consulta en un estado de Nueva Inglaterra, y se incluyó a 95 niños y sus cuidadores en una evaluación de un subgrupo muestra. De este subgrupo muestra, los maestros y los administradores de ECE, pero no las familias, indicaron significativas mejorías en el funcionamiento de los niños desde la referencia hasta el final de la consulta. Se dio también una significativa disminución en el riesgo de expulsión de los niños, tal como se midió por medio de las percepciones de los maestros asociadas con las decisiones de expulsión. Este estudio contribuye a la literatura informativa sobre IECMHC por medio de ofrecer resultados específicos al modelo de consulta enfocado en el niño y subrayar el posible papel de las atribuciones del adulto para los niños en ECE.

La consultation de santé mentale du nourrisson et de la petite enfance (Infant and early childhood mental health consultation abrégé en anglais IECMHC) dans des contextes éducatifs et de crèches (abrégé ici CEC selon le français) est une approche prometteuse pour le soutien aux jeunes enfants. Bien que les recherches sur les effets de l'IECMHC sont encourageantes, elles sont limitées par les complexités des systèmes dans lesquels l'IECMHC est mise en oeuvre et la variabilité des modèles de l'IECMHC. Cette étude s'est donné pour but de clairement articuler un modèle IECMHC au niveau de l'état, focalisé sur l'enfant et à court terme, d'évaluer la satisfaction de la personne consultée, d'examiner les effets de la consultation sur le fonctionnement des enfants à l'école et à la maison, et d'évaluer les changements dans les perceptions de l'enseignant liée au risque d'expulsion après la consultation. En tout 268 enfants âgés de 1­5 ans (69% blancs, 75% garçons) et leur famille et les personnes prenant soin d'eux à l'école ont participé à une consultation dans un état de nous Nouvelle Angleterre (aux Etats­Unis), et 95 enfants et personnes prenant soin d'eux ont été inclus dans un sous­échantillon d'évaluation. Dans ce sous­échantillon les enseignants et administrateurs CEC, mais pas les familles, ont fait état d'une amélioration important dans le fonctionnement des enfants du moment de la référence à la fin de la consultation. Il n'a pas de baisse importante du risque d'expulsion des enfants, mesurée par les perceptions des enseignants liées aux décisions d'expulsion. Cette étude contribue aux recherches sur l'IECMHC en offrant des résultats spécifiques à un modèle de consultation focalisé sur l'enfant et en mettant en lumière le rôle possible des attributions adultes pour les enfants dans les CEC.

Testing the mid-range model: Attachment in a high risk sample.

Infant attachment is a key predictor of later socioemotional functioning, but it is not clear how parental responsivity to infant expressive behavior is associated with attachment outcomes. A mid-range model of responsivity holds that both unresponsive and highly reactive parental behaviors lead to insecure and disorganized attachment. We examined the relationship between maternal (and infant) contingent responsivity and attachment in a high-risk sample. Participants were 625 infant-mother pairs from a longitudinal study of children with and without prenatal drug exposure and variable levels of associated social risks. Infant-mother pairs participated in the Face-to-Face/Still-Face paradigm (FFSF) at 4-months and in the Strange Situation Procedure (SSP) at 18-months. A model incorporating both linear and quadratic responsivity effects indicated that mothers who were either very high (reactive) or very low (unresponsive) in responsivity were more likely to have infants with disorganized attachment outcomes. While maternal responsivity was associated with attachment disorganization, no associations between maternal responsivity, and attachment security/insecurity were detected. Infant responsivity to mother was not associated with attachment outcomes. The findings suggest the importance of mid-range levels of maternal responsivity in the development of organized attachment among infants facing high levels of prenatal and social risk.

Understanding links between maternal perinatal posttraumatic stress symptoms and infant socioemotional and physical health.

Maternal posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) are associated with adverse consequences for older children, but very few studies have examined links between perinatal maternal PTSS and infant outcomes. Trauma exposure and psychopathology, including PTSS, is often heightened for women during pregnancy through 1 year postpartum. Therefore, the perinatal period may be a critical time for understanding the risk maternal PTSS and other mental health factors pose to the socioemotional and physical health of infants. The present study explored the relation between maternal PTSS and infant socioemotional and physical health problems in a sample of racially and ethnically diverse mother-infant dyads (N = 295) assessed prenatally and at 12 months postpartum. This study also examined whether there are: (1) moderating effects of maternal depressive symptoms and parenting stress on these associations and (2) indirect effects of PTSS on infant outcomes through observed maternal sensitivity. Results indicated that postpartum depressive symptoms and parenting stress, rather than PTSS, were associated with greater infant socioemotional health problems. However, prenatal PTSS were associated with greater infant physical health problems when mothers also reported clinically significant levels of postpartum depressive symptoms. Maternal sensitivity was not associated with maternal PTSS, depressive symptoms, or parenting stress, nor was it related to infant socioemotional and physical health; thus, maternal sensitivity was not tested as an intermediary mechanism linking maternal mental health with infant outcomes. Implications for promoting maternal mental health in the perinatal period to bolster socioemotional and physical health of infants are discussed.

Los síntomas de estrés materno postraumático (PTSS) se asocian con consecuencias adversas para niños de mayor edad, pero pocos estudios han examinado las conexiones entre PTSS materno perinatal y los resultados en el infante. El estar expuesta al trauma y la sicopatología de este, incluyendo PTSS, a menudo se intensifican más en el caso de mujeres durante el embarazo y hasta un año después del parto. Por tanto, el período perinatal pudiera ser un omento crítico para comprender el riesgo que el PTSS materno y otros factores de salud mental presentan para la salud socioemocional y física de los infantes. Este estudio exploró la relación entre el PTSS materno y los problemas de salud socioemocional y física del infante en un grupo muestra de díadas madre-infante racial y étnicamente diversas (N = 295), evaluadas prenatalmente y a los 12 meses después del parto. Este estudio también examinó si hay: (1) efectos moderadores de los síntomas depresivos maternos y el estrés de crianza sobre estas asociaciones y (2) efectos indirectos de PTSS sobre los resultados en el infante a través de la observada sensibilidad materna. Los resultados indican que los síntomas depresivos y el estrés de crianza, en vez de PTSS, estaban asociados con mayores problemas de salud socioemocional del infante. Sin embargo, el PTSS se asoció con mayores problemas de salud física en el infante cuando las madres también reportaron niveles clínicamente significativos de síntomas depresivos. No se corroboró el que la sensibilidad materna fuera un mecanismo intermediario de conexión entre PTSS y otros factores de salud mental materna y resultados en el infante.

Les symptômes des stress posttraumatique (SPT) maternel sont liés à des conséquences adverses pour les enfants plus âgés mais peu d'études ont examiné les liens entre le SPT périnatal maternel et les résultats sur les nourrissons. L'exposition au trauma et la psychopathologie, y compris le SPT, est souvent accrues pour les femmes durant la grossesse jusqu'à un an après la naissance. Par conséquent la période périnatale peut être un moment critique pour la compréhension du risque que posent le SPT maternel et d'autres facteurs de santé mentale à la santé socio-émotionnelle et physique des nourrissons. Cette étude a exploré la relation entre le SPT maternel et les problèmes socio-émotionnels et physiques des nourrissons chez un échantillon de dyades mère-nourrisson racialement et ethniquement diverses (N = 295) évaluées au stade prénatal et à 12 mois après la naissance. Cette étude a aussi examiné s'il existait : (1) des effets modérateurs de symptômes dépressifs maternels et du stress de parentage sur ces associations et (2) des effets indirects de SPT sur les résultats du nourrisson à travers une sensibilité maternelle observée. Les résultats ont indiqué que les symptômes dépressifs postpartum et le stress de parentage, plus que le SPT, étaient liés à des problèmes plus élevés de santé socio-émotionnels du nourrisson. Cependant le SPT prénatal était lié à de plus grands problèmes de santé physique du nourrisson quand les mères faisaient aussi état de niveaux cliniquement élevés de symptômes dépressifs postpartum. La sensibilité maternelle n'était pas liée au SPT maternel, aux symptômes dépressifs ou au stress de parentage, et n'était pas non plus liée à la santé socio-émotionnelle et physique du nourrisson. Donc la sensibilité maternelle n'a pas testée comme mécanisme intermédiaire liant la santé mentale maternelle aux résultats du nourrisson. Les implications pour la promotion de la santé mentale maternelle dans la période périnatale afin de soutenir la santé socio-émotionnelle et physique des nourrissons sont discutées.

Patterns of Asthma Medication Use across the Transition to High School.

OBJECTIVE: Adherence to asthma controller medications is suboptimal among adolescents. We evaluated predictors of adherence and longitudinal patterns of medication use between 8th and 10th grade among a sample of youth of diverse race/ethnicity. METHODS: Eighth graders with asthma on controller medications (N = 62; 40.0% non-Latino white; 23.7% Black; 37.3% Latino; 37.3% female) completed measures of medication beliefs, responsibility for asthma management, and family cohesion. Objective methods tracked medication use longitudinally. RESULTS: Adherence declined during the high school transition, from 48.0% in eighth grade to 34.1% in tenth grade (F = 5.35, p < .01). Males had lower adherence (b = -10.11, SE = 5.37, p = .02, f2 = 0.11), as did Latino youth (b = -12.21, SE = 8.23, p = .03, f2 = 0.12). Family cohesion was associated with higher adherence (b = 4.38, SE = 1.98, p = .04, f2 = 0.06). Latent class models (LCMs) suggested a three-class model of longitudinal adherence patterns. This included low, declining adherence (Class 1 = 29%; higher proportion male, p = .02), high, sustained adherence (Class 2 = 26%, high family cohesion, p = .05, higher proportion female, p = .02), and low, sustained adherence (Class 3 = 45%; higher proportion Latino, p = .05, higher proportion male, p = .02). CONCLUSIONS: Asthma medication adherence declined between 8th and 10th grade. LCMs indicated some youth have stable patterns of adherence (high or low), whereas others demonstrate declines. Gender differences were observed, and family cohesion was associated with higher, sustained adherence. Interventions building on family resources and targeting the barriers adolescents face are necessary to improve asthma management during this vulnerable period.

Family Context Moderates the Association of Maternal Postpartum Depression and Stability of Infant Temperament.

Maternal postpartum depression, maternal sensitivity, and family functioning were examined as predictors of the stability of observed infant temperament over the first 30 months of life (N = 147 families). Eight observations at 8, 15, and 30 months postpartum were used to assess infant temperament. Structured clinical interviews were used to assess maternal depression, and observational assessments were used to assess family functioning and maternal sensitivity. Family context moderated the effect of maternal depression on change in infant temperament. Maternal depression was associated with change in infant temperament when maternal sensitivity was low but not when maternal sensitivity was high. Family functioning similarly moderated these links. Results underscore the centrality of the family context in shaping child behavior over time.

Sleep Hygiene and Sleep Outcomes in a Sample of Urban Children With and Without Asthma.

Objective: To assess sleep hygiene and the sleep environment of urban children with and without asthma, and examine the associations among urban stressors, sleep hygiene, and sleep outcomes. Methods: Urban children, 7-9 years old, with (N = 216) and without (N = 130) asthma from African American, Latino, or non-Latino White backgrounds were included. Level of neighborhood risk was used to describe urban stress. Parent-reported sleep hygiene and daytime sleepiness data were collected using questionnaires. Sleep duration and efficiency were assessed via actigraphy. Results: Higher neighborhood risk, not asthma status, was associated with poorer sleep hygiene. Controlling for neighborhood risk, sleep hygiene was related to daytime sleepiness. Asthma status, not sleep hygiene, was related to sleep efficiency. In children with asthma, poorer sleep hygiene was associated with shorter sleep duration. Conclusion: Considering urban stressors when treating pediatric populations is important, as factors related to urban stress may influence sleep hygiene practices and sleep outcomes.

Stress exposure and psychopathology alter methylation of the serotonin receptor 2A (HTR2A) gene in preschoolers.

Serotonin signaling pathways play a key role in brain development, stress reactivity, and mental health. Epigenetic alterations in the serotonin system may underlie the effect of early life stress on psychopathology. The current study examined methylation of the serotonin receptor 2A (HTR2A) gene in a sample of 228 children including 119 with child welfare documentation of moderate to severe maltreatment within the last 6 months. Child protection records, semistructured interviews in the home, and parent reports were used to assess child stress exposure, psychiatric symptoms, and behavior. The HTR2A genotype and methylation of HTR2A were measured at two CpG sites (-1420 and -1224) from saliva DNA. HTR2A genotype was associated with HTR2A methylation at both CpG sites. HTR2A genotype also moderated associations of contextual stress exposure and HTR2A methylation at site -1420. Contextual stress was positively associated with -1420 methylation among A homozygotes, but negatively associated with -1420 methylation among G homozygotes. Posttraumatic stress disorder and major depressive disorder symptoms were negatively associated with methylation at -1420, but positively associated with methylation at -1224. Results support the view that the serotonin system is sensitive to stress exposure and psychopathology, and HTR2A methylation may be a mechanism by which early adversity is biologically encoded.

Dynamic stress-related epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene promoter during early development: The role of child maltreatment.

Epigenetics processes may play a vital role in the biological embedding of early environmental adversity and the development of psychopathology. Accumulating evidence suggests that maltreatment is linked to methylation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene, nuclear receptor subfamily 3, group C, member 1 (NR3C1), which is a key regulator of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis. However, prior work has been exclusively cross-sectional, greatly constraining our understanding of stress-related epigenetic processes over time. In the current study, we examined the effect of maltreatment and other adversity on change in NR3C1 methylation among at-risk preschoolers to begin to characterize within-child epigenetic changes during this sensitive developmental period. Participants were 260 preschoolers (3-5 years old, 53.8% female), including 51.5% with moderate to severe maltreatment in the past 6 months. Child protection records, semistructured interviews, and parent reports were used to assess child stress exposure. Methylation of exons 1D and 1F of NR3C1 via saliva DNA were measured at two time points approximately 6 months apart. Results indicate that maltreated children evidence higher baseline levels of NR3C1 methylation, significant decreases in methylation over time, and then at follow-up, lower levels of methylation, relative to nonmaltreated preschoolers. Findings from the current study highlight the complex nature of stress-related epigenetic processes during early development.

Change in FK506 binding protein 5 (FKBP5) methylation over time among preschoolers with adversity.

FK506 binding protein 5 (FKBP5) alters stress response system functioning, and childhood maltreatment is associated with methylation of the FKBP5 gene. Yet it is unknown if maltreatment contributes to change in FKBP5 methylation over time. The current study draws upon a sample of 231 preschoolers, including 123 with child welfare documentation of moderate to severe maltreatment in the past 6 months, to understand if maltreatment contributes to change in FKBP5 methylation over a 6-month period. Review of child protection records and semistructured interviews in the home were used to assess maltreatment and exposure to other contextual stressors, as well as service utilization. Methylation of FKBP5 at two CpG sites in intron 7 was measured from saliva DNA at the time of initial study enrollment, and 6 months following enrollment. Child maltreatment was associated with change in FKBP5 methylation over time, but only when children were exposed to high levels of other contextual stressors. Service utilization was associated with increases in methylation over time, but only among children with the FKPB5 rs1360780 protective CC genotype. Methylation of FKBP5 is sensitive to stress exposure and may be a mechanism linking early adversity to long-term health and developmental outcomes.

Methylation of the Glucocorticoid Receptor Gene Promoter in Preschoolers: Links With Internalizing Behavior Problems.

Accumulating evidence suggests that early adversity is linked to methylation of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) gene, NR3C1, which is a key regulator of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Yet no prior work has considered the contribution of methylation of NR3C1 to emerging behavior problems and psychopathology in childhood. This study examined the links between methylation of NR3C1 and behavior problems in preschoolers. Data were drawn from a sample of preschoolers with early adversity (n = 171). Children ranged in age from 3 to 5 years, were racially and ethnically diverse, and nearly all qualified for public assistance. Seventy-one children had child welfare documentation of moderate to severe maltreatment in the past 6 months. Structured record review and interviews in the home were used to assess early adversity. Parents reported on child internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Methylation of NR3C1 at exons 1D , 1F , and 1H were measured via sodium bisulfite pyrosequencing from saliva DNA. Methylation of NR3C1 at exons 1D and 1F was positively associated with internalizing (r = .21, p < .01 and r = .23, p < .01, respectively), but not externalizing, behavior problems. Furthermore, NR3C1 methylation mediated effects of early adversity on internalizing behavior problems. These results suggest that methylation of NR3C1 contributes to psychopathology in young children, and NR3C1 methylation from saliva DNA is salient to behavioral outcomes.

Effects of prenatal substance exposure on infant temperament vary by context.

This was a prospective longitudinal multisite study of the effects of prenatal cocaine and/or opiate exposure on temperament in 4-month-olds of the Maternal Lifestyle Study (N = 958: 366 cocaine exposed, 37 opiate exposed, 33 exposed to both drugs, 522 matched comparison). The study evaluated positivity and negativity during The Behavior Assessment of Infant Temperament (Garcia Coll et al., 1988). Parents rated temperament (Infant Behavior Questionnaire; Rothbart, 1981). Cocaine-exposed infants showed less positivity overall, mainly during activity and threshold items, more negativity during sociability items, and less negativity during irritability and threshold items. Latent profile analysis indicated individual temperament patterns were best described by three groups: low/moderate overall reactivity, high social negative reactivity, and high nonsocial negative reactivity. Infants with heavy cocaine exposure were more likely in high social negative reactivity profile, were less negative during threshold items, and required longer soothing intervention. Cocaine- and opiate-exposed infants scored lower on Infant Behavior Questionnaire smiling and laughter and duration of orienting scales. Opiate-exposed infants were rated as less respondent to soothing. By including a multitask measure of temperament we were able to show context-specific behavioral dysregulation in prenatally cocaine-exposed infants. The findings indicate flatter temperament may be specific to nonsocial contexts, whereas social interactions may be more distressing for cocaine-exposed infants.

Toddler's self-regulation strategies in a challenge context are nap-dependent.

Early childhood represents a time of developmental changes in both sleep and self-regulation, a construct reflecting the ability to control one's behaviour, attention and emotions when challenged. Links between sleep and self-regulation processes have been proposed, but experimental evidence with young children is lacking. In the current study, we tested the effects of acute sleep restriction (nap deprivation) on toddlers' self-regulation. Healthy children (n = 12; four males; aged 30-36 months (33.9 ± 1.7)) slept on a strict schedule (verified with actigraphy and sleep diaries) for 5 days before each of two afternoon assessments following a nap and a no-nap condition (~11-day protocol). Children were videotaped while attempting an unsolvable puzzle, and 10 mutually exclusive self-regulation strategies were later coded. On average, children lost ~90 min of sleep on the no-nap versus the nap day. Nap deprivation resulted in moderate-to-large effects on self-regulation strategies, with decreases in scepticism (d = 0.77; 7% change), negative self-appraisal (d = 0.92; 5% change) and increases in physical self-soothing (d = 0.68; 10% change), focus on the puzzle piece that would not fit (perseveration; d = 0.50; 9% change) and insistence on completing the unsolvable puzzle (d = 0.91; 10% change). Results suggest that sleep serves an important role in the way that toddlers respond to challenging events in their daily lives. After losing daytime sleep, toddlers were less able to engage effectively in a difficult task and reverted to less mature self-regulation strategies than when they were well rested. Over time, chronically missed sleep may impair young children's self-regulation abilities, resulting in risk for social-emotional, behavioural and school problems.

Development of the General Parenting Observational Scale to assess parenting during family meals.

BACKGROUND: There is growing interest in the relationship between general parenting and childhood obesity. However, assessing general parenting via surveys can be difficult due to issues with self-report and differences in the underlying constructs being measured. As a result, different aspects of parenting have been associated with obesity risk. We developed a more objective tool to assess general parenting by using observational methods during a mealtime interaction. METHODS: The General Parenting Observational Scale (GPOS) was based on prior work of Baumrind, Maccoby and Martin, Barber, and Slater and Power. Ten dimensions of parenting were included; 4 were classified in the emotional dimension of parenting (warmth and affection, support and sensitivity, negative affect, detachment), and 6 were classified in the behavioral dimension of parenting (firm discipline and structure, demands for maturity, psychological control, physical control, permissiveness, neglect). Overweight children age 8-12 years old and their parent (n = 44 dyads) entering a weight control program were videotaped eating a family meal. Parents were coded for their general parenting behaviors. The Mealtime Family Interaction Coding System (MICS) and several self-report measures of general parenting were also used to assess the parent-child interaction. Spearman's correlations were used to assess correlation between measures. RESULTS: The emotional dimensions of warmth/affection and support/sensitivity, and the behavioral dimension of firm discipline/structure were robustly captured during the family meals. Warmth/affection and support/sensitivity were significantly correlated with affect management, interpersonal involvement, and communication from the MICS. Firm discipline/structure was inversely correlated with affect management, behavior control, and task accomplishment. Parents who were older, with higher educational status, and lower BMIs were more likely to display warmth/affection and support/sensitivity. CONCLUSION: Several general parenting dimensions from the GPOS were highly correlated with similar family functioning constructs from the MICS. This new observational tool appears to be a valid means of assessing general parenting behaviors during mealtimes and adds to our ability to measure parent-level factors affecting child weight-related outcomes. Future evaluation of this tool in a broader range of the population and other family settings should be conducted.

Good Sleep Health in Urban Children With Asthma: A Risk and Resilience Approach.

OBJECTIVES: To identify children demonstrating "good" sleep health in a sample of urban children with persistent asthma; to compare sociocontextual, asthma clinical characteristics, and sleep behaviors in children with "good" versus "poor" sleep health; and to examine protective effects of family-based health behaviors on sleep health. METHODS: Participants were 249 Black (33%), Latino (51%) and non-Latino White (16%) children with asthma, ages 7-9 years, and their primary caregivers. RESULTS: 32 percent of children had "good" sleep health. Well-controlled asthma and better lung function were more likely in this group. In the context of urban risks, sleep hygiene appeared to be a protective factor associated with better sleep quality. The protective effect of asthma management functioned differently by ethnic group. CONCLUSIONS: This study identifies protective processes that may guard against urban risks to optimize sleep health in children with asthma. Intervention programs can be tailored to consider specific supports that enhance sleep health in this high-risk group.

Childhood maltreatment and methylation of FK506 binding protein 5 gene (FKBP5).

A growing body of evidence suggests that alterations of the stress response system may be a mechanism by which childhood maltreatment alters risk for psychopathology. FK506 binding protein 51 (FKBP5) binds to the glucocorticoid receptor and alters its ability to respond to stress signaling. The aim of the present study was to examine methylation of the FKBP5 gene (FKBP5), and the role of an FKBP5 genetic variant, in relation to childhood maltreatment in a sample of impoverished preschool-aged children. One hundred seventy-four families participated in this study, including 69 with child welfare documentation of moderate to severe maltreatment in the past 6 months. The children, who ranged in age from 3 to 5 years, were racially and ethnically diverse. Structured record review and interviews in the home were used to assess a history of maltreatment, other traumas, and contextual life stressors; and a composite variable assessed the number exposures to these adversities. Methylation of two sites in intron 7 of FKBP5 was measured via sodium bisulfite pyrosequencing. Maltreated children had significantly lower levels of methylation at both CpG sites (p < .05). Lifetime contextual stress exposure showed a trend for lower levels of methylation at one of the sites, and a trend for an interaction with the FKBP5 polymorphism. A composite adversity variable was associated with lower levels of methylation at one of the sites as well (p < .05). FKBP5 alters glucocorticoid receptor responsiveness, and FKBP5 gene methylation may be a mechanism of the biobehavioral effects of adverse exposures in young children.

Adversity in preschool-aged children: Effects on salivary interleukin-1ß.

Exposure to early life adversity is linked to impaired affective, cognitive, and behavioral functioning and increases risk for various psychiatric and medical conditions. Stress-induced increases in pro-inflammatory cytokines may be a biological mechanism of these effects. Few studies have examined cytokine levels in children experiencing early life adversity, and very little research has investigated cytokines or other markers of inflammation in saliva. In the present study, we examined salivary interleukin (IL)-1ß and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels in relation to stress exposure in 40 children aged 3 to 5 years who were enrolled in a larger study of early life adversity. Childhood maltreatment status was assessed via review of child welfare records. Contextual stress exposure, traumatic life event history, and symptoms of psychopathology were assessed via caregiver interviews at a home visit. In a subsequent visit, salivary IL-1ß and CRP were obtained before and after participation in four emotion-eliciting tasks. The number of past-month contextual stressors, lifetime contextual stressors, and traumatic life events each demonstrated a significant main effect on IL-1ß. Baseline IL-1ß was positively associated with each of the significant main-effect adversities. Postchallenge IL-1ß displayed positive associations with each adversity variable, but these were not significant. CRP was not significantly associated with any of the adversity variables. Given the evidence suggesting the involvement of IL-1ß in the neuropathology of psychiatric conditions, these results may have important implications for developmental outcomes.

Methylation of exons 1D, 1F, and 1H of the glucocorticoid receptor gene promoter and exposure to adversity in preschool-aged children.

Epigenetic modifications to the genome are a key mechanism involved in the biological encoding of experience. Animal studies and a growing body of literature in humans have shown that early adversity is linked to methylation of the gene for the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), which is a key regulator of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis as well as a broad range of physiological systems including metabolic and immune function. One hundred eighty-four families participated, including n = 74 with child welfare documentation of moderate-severe maltreatment in the past 6 months. Children ranged in age from 3 to 5 years, and were racially and ethnically diverse. Structured record review and interviews in the home were used to assess a history of maltreatment, other traumas, and contextual life stressors, and a composite variable assessed the number exposures to these adversities. Methylation of regions 1(D), 1(F), and 1(H) of the GR gene was measured via sodium bisulfite pyrosequencing. The composite measure of adversity was positively correlated with methylation at exons 1(D) and 1(F) in the promoter of the GR gene. Individual stress measures were significantly associated with a several CpG sites in these regions. GR gene methylation may be a mechanism of the biobehavioral effects of adverse exposures in young children.

What Role Does Sleep Play in Weight Gain in the First Semester of University?

We hypothesized that shorter sleep durations and greater variability in sleep patterns are associated with weight gain in the first semester of university. Students (N = 132) completed daily sleep diaries for 9 weeks, completed the MEQ (chronotype) and CES-D (depressed mood) at week 9, and self-reported weight/height (weeks 1 & 9). Mean and variability scores were calculated for sleep duration (TST, TSTv), bedtime (BT, BTv), and wake time (WT, WTv). An initial hierarchical regression evaluated (block 1) sex, ethnicity; (block 2) depressed mood, chronotype; (block 3) TST; (block 4) BT, WT; and (block 5; R(2) change = 0.09, p = 0.005) TSTv, BTv, WTv with weight change. A sex-by-TSTv interaction was found. A final model showed that ethnicity, TST, TSTv, and BTv accounted for 31% of the variance in weight change for males; TSTv was the most significant contributor (R(2) change = 0.21, p < 0.001). Daily variability in sleep duration contributes to males' weight gain. Further investigation needs to examine sex-specific outcomes for sleep and weight.