Embryology of the fat-tailed dunnart (Sminthopsis crassicaudata): A marsupial model for comparative mammalian developmental and evolutionary biology.

BACKGROUND: Marsupials are a diverse and unique group of mammals, but remain underutilized in developmental biology studies, hindering our understanding of mammalian diversity. This study focuses on establishing the fat-tailed dunnart (Sminthopsis crassicaudata) as an emerging laboratory model, providing reproductive monitoring methods and a detailed atlas of its embryonic development. RESULTS: We monitored the reproductive cycles of female dunnarts and established methods to confirm pregnancy and generate timed embryos. With this, we characterized dunnart embryo development from cleavage to birth, and provided detailed descriptions of its organogenesis and heterochronic growth patterns. Drawing stage-matched comparisons with other species, we highlight the dunnarts accelerated craniofacial and limb development, characteristic of marsupials. CONCLUSIONS: The fat-tailed dunnart is an exceptional marsupial model for developmental studies, where our detailed practices for reproductive monitoring and embryo collection enhance its accessibility in other laboratories. The accelerated developmental patterns observed in the Dunnart provide a valuable system for investigating molecular mechanisms underlying heterochrony. This study not only contributes to our understanding of marsupial development but also equips the scientific community with new resources for addressing biodiversity challenges and developing effective conservation strategies in marsupials.

Mammalian development does not recapitulate suspected key transformations in the evolutionary detachment of the mammalian middle ear.

The ectotympanic, malleus and incus of the developing mammalian middle ear (ME) are initially attached to the dentary via Meckel's cartilage, betraying their origins from the primary jaw joint of land vertebrates. This recapitulation has prompted mostly unquantified suggestions that several suspected--but similarly unquantified--key evolutionary transformations leading to the mammalian ME are recapitulated in development, through negative allometry and posterior/medial displacement of ME bones relative to the jaw joint. Here we show, using µCT reconstructions, that neither allometric nor topological change is quantifiable in the pre-detachment ME development of six marsupials and two monotremes. Also, differential ME positioning in the two monotreme species is not recapitulated. This challenges the developmental prerequisites of widely cited evolutionary scenarios of definitive mammalian middle ear (DMME) evolution, highlighting the requirement for further fossil evidence to test these hypotheses. Possible association between rear molar eruption, full ME ossification and ME detachment in marsupials suggests functional divergence between dentary and ME as a trigger for developmental, and possibly also evolutionary, ME detachment. The stable positioning of the dentary and ME supports suggestions that a 'partial mammalian middle ear' as found in many mammaliaforms--probably with a cartilaginous Meckel's cartilage--represents the only developmentally plausible evolutionary DMME precursor.

Expression analysis of Cdx2 and Pou5f1 in a marsupial, the stripe-faced dunnart, during early development.

The first lineage allocation during mouse development forms the trophectoderm and inner cell mass, in which Cdx2 and Pou5f1 display reciprocal expression. Yet Cdx2 is not required for trophectoderm specification in other mammals, such as the human, cow, pig, or in two marsupials, the tammar and opossum. The role of Cdx2 and Pou5f1 in the first lineage allocation of Sminthopsis macroura, the stripe-faced dunnart, is unknown. In this study, expression of Cdx2 and Pou5f1 during oogenesis, development from cleavage to blastocyst stages, and in the allocation of the first three lineages was analyzed for this dunnart. Cdx2 mRNA was present in late antral-stage oocytes, but not present again until Day 5.5. Pou5f1 mRNA was present from primary follicles to zygotes, and then expression resumed starting at the early unilaminar blastocyst stage. All cleavage stages and the pluriblast and trophoblast cells co-expressed CDX2 and POU5F1 proteins, which persisted until early stages of hypoblast formation. Hypoblast cells also show co-localisation of POU5F1 and CDX2 once they were allocated, and this persisted during their division and migration. Our studies suggest that CDX2, and possibly POU5F1, are maternal proteins, and that the first lineage to differentiate is the trophoblast, which differentiates to trophectoderm after shell loss one day before implantation. In the stripe-faced dunnart, cleavage cells, as well as trophoblast and pluriblast cells, are polarized, suggesting the continued presence of CDX2 in both lineages until late blastocyst stages may play a role in the formation and maintenance of polarity.

A novel marsupial pri-miRNA transcript has a putative role in gamete maintenance and defines a vertebrate miRNA cluster paralogous to the miR-15a/miR-16-1 cluster.

Successful maintenance, survival and maturation of gametes rely on bidirectional communication between the gamete and its supporting cells. Before puberty, factors from the gamete and its supporting cells are necessary for spermatogonial stem cell and primordial follicle oocyte maintenance. Following gametogenesis, gametes rely on factors and nutrients secreted by cells of the reproductive tracts, the epididymis and/or oviduct, to complete maturation. Despite extensive studies on female and male reproduction, many of the molecular mechanisms of germ cell maintenance remain relatively unknown, particularly in marsupial species. We present the first study and characterisation of a novel primary miRNA transcript, pri-miR-16c, in the marsupial, the stripe-faced dunnart. Bioinformatic analysis showed that its predicted processed miRNA - miR-16c - is present in a wide range of vertebrates, but not eutherians. In situ hybridisation revealed dunnart pri-miR-16c expression in day 4 (primordial germ cells) and day 7 (oogonia) pouch young, in primary oocytes and follicle cells of primordial follicles but then only in follicle cells of primary, secondary and antral follicles in adult ovaries. In the adult testis, pri-miR-16c transcripts were present in the cytoplasm of spermatogonial cells. The oviduct and the epididymis both showed expression, but not any other somatic tissues examined or conceptuses during early embryonic development. This pattern of expression suggests that pri-miR-16c function may be associated with gamete maintenance, possibly through mechanisms involving RNA transfer, until the zygote enters the uterus at the pronuclear stage.

Did transmission of Helicobacter pylori from humans cause a disease outbreak in a colony of Stripe-faced Dunnarts (Sminthopsis macroura)?

Since the discovery that Helicobacter pylori causes a range of pathologies in the stomachs of infected humans, it has become apparent that Helicobacters are found in a diverse range of animal species where they are frequently associated with disease. In 2003 and 2004, there were two outbreaks of increased mortality associated with gastric bleeding and weight-loss in a captive colony of the Australian marsupial, the Stripe-faced Dunnart (Sminthopsis macroura). The presence of gastric pathology led to an investigation of potential Helicobacter pathogenesis in these animals. Histological examination revealed the presence of gastritis, and PCR analysis confirmed the presence of Helicobacter infection in the stomachs of these marsupials. Surprisingly, sequencing of 16S rRNA from these bacteria identified the species as H. pylori and PCR confirmed the strain to be positive for the important pathogenesis factor, cagA. We therefore describe, for the first time, an apparent reverse zoonotic infection of Stripe-faced Dunnarts with H. pylori. Already prone to pathological effects of stress (as experienced during breeding season), concomitant H. pylori infection appears to be a possible essential but not sufficient co-factor in prototypic gastric bleeding and weight loss in these marsupials. The Stripe-faced Dunnart could represent a new model for investigating Helicobacter-driven gastric pathology. Infections from their human handlers, specifically of H. pylori, may be a potential risk to captive colonies of marsupials.

Induced ovulation mimics the time-table of natural development in the stripe-faced dunnart, Sminthopsis macroura and results in the birth of fertile young.

Induced ovulation maximizes captive breeding success, increasing productivity and facilitating the contribution of otherwise infertile animals to the genetic pool. In marsupials, induced ovulation to produce fertile young is unknown. Here we present an induction protocol efficient in inducing non-cycling and non-reproductive females to cycle, mate, ovulate, and conceive. Ovulation was induced in Sminthopsis macroura using an initial injection of 0.06 IU equine serum gonadotropin (eSG)/g (time 0), followed on day 4 by 0.04 IU eSG/g. Using this induction regime, the timing of follicular and embryonic development mimics natural cycles and results in the birth of viable, fertile young. Response to induction is not significantly affected by animal age, making this protocol an effective conservation tool. We have established a time-table of development following induction, providing a source of precisely timed research material. This is the first induced ovulation protocol in any marsupial to result in demonstrated fertile offspring and to allow the reliable collection of known-age samples during both the follicular phase and the gestation period.

Cloning and characterization of a new gene from the PAT protein family, in a marsupial, the stripe-faced dunnart (Sminthopsis macroura).

Recent studies of PAT proteins in Drosophila and Xenopus have revealed significant roles for this family of proteins in the polarized transport of lipid droplets and maternal determinants during early embryogenesis. In mammals, PAT proteins are known to function mainly in lipid metabolism, yet research has yet to establish a role for PAT proteins in mammalian embryogenesis. Oocytes and early cleavage stages in Sminthopsis macroura show obvious polarized cytoplasmic distribution of organelles, somewhat similar to Drosophila and Xenopus, suggesting that a PAT protein may also be involved in S. macroura embryonic development. In the present study, we identified a new marsupial gene for PAT family proteins, DPAT, from S. macroura. Expression analyses by RT-PCR and whole mount fluorescent in situ hybridization revealed that DPAT expression was specific to oocytes and cleavage stage conceptuses. Analysis of the localization of lipid droplets during S. macroura early embryonic development found a polarized distribution of lipid droplets at the two- and four-cell stage, and an asymmetric enrichment in blastomeres on one side of conceptuses from two- to eight-cell stage. Lipid droplets largely segregate to pluriblast cells at the 16-cell stage, suggesting a role in pluriblast lineage allocation.

Evolution of the shell coat and yolk in amniotes: a marsupial perspective.

Two characters distinguish oogenesis and early development in marsupials and monotremes: (1) the shell coat that persists from the zygote to somite stages in marsupials or until hatching in monotremes; and (2) the numerous, apparently almost empty vesicles that appear in primary oocytes, increase during oogenesis in marsupials and monotremes before being shed into the cleavage cavity and are preferentially distributed to the trophoblast lineage in marsupials, but comprise the latebra in monotremes. Analysis of these unusual characters used Southern analysis of genomic DNA dot blots and histology and electron microscopy. The evidence suggests that the marsupial shell coat protein, CP4, was probably characteristic of the egg of the mammalian ancestor. Further, the vesicles, present in marsupials during oogensis and cleavage and in eutherian mammals during blastocyst formation are the residual elements of white yolk present in the larger yolky eggs of monotemes and sauropsids. By comparison with the function of the vesicle components in marsupials, it is suggested that one role for the white yolk in monotremes and the sauropsids is to provide extracellular matrix (ECM), especially hyaluronan containing stabilizing proteins, for epithelial construction. Thus, as oviparity was replaced by viviparity, egg size was reduced, the germinal cytoplasm was retained, and yellow yolk was markedly reduced or lost in marsupials and eutherians. The white yolk was retained in monotremes and marsupials where blastocyst epithelial construction requires ECM support, and its appearance is heterochronously shifted to after compaction, when blastocyst formation and expansion occurs, in eutherian mammals.

Culture of Marsupial Oocytes and Conceptuses.

Marsupial oocytes and conceptuses provide special challenges to scientists wanting to develop reliable in vitro techniques. Yet these techniques are essential to the study of development. Such techniques also provide tools to help prevent further decline in marsupial biodiversity using assisted reproductive technology. Specific marsupial characters have made development of in vitro techniques difficult. Some of these are the high-energy requirements of cleavage and blastocyst formation and maintenance because of cell-zona adhesion; the essential nature of the shell coat for most of development; the prevalence of embryonic arrests in vivo and in vitro during cleavage and unilaminar blastocyst stages; and the fragility of blastocysts leading to precocious shell loss and developmental failure in vitro. The advantages of marsupial culture during development are that the gestation period is very short, that the implantation is superficial in many, and that the neonates are altricial. This chapter outlines solutions to some of these problems in a representative, polytocous, dasyurid marsupial, Sminthopsis macroura. It is a natural superovulator with the shortest gestation period of any mammal, which has been cultured to within 5 h of birth. The other representative marsupial, the monovular phalangerid Trichosurus vulpecula, has a very superficial implantation that allows vesicles to readily detach from the endometrium.

Forelimb-hindlimb developmental timing changes across tetrapod phylogeny.

BACKGROUND: Tetrapods exhibit great diversity in limb structures among species and also between forelimbs and hindlimbs within species, diversity which frequently correlates with locomotor modes and life history. We aim to examine the potential relation of changes in developmental timing (heterochrony) to the origin of limb morphological diversity in an explicit comparative and quantitative framework. In particular, we studied the relative time sequence of development of the forelimbs versus the hindlimbs in 138 embryos of 14 tetrapod species spanning a diverse taxonomic, ecomorphological and life-history breadth. Whole-mounts and histological sections were used to code the appearance of 10 developmental events comprising landmarks of development from the early bud stage to late chondrogenesis in the forelimb and the corresponding serial homologues in the hindlimb. RESULTS: An overall pattern of change across tetrapods can be discerned and appears to be relatively clade-specific. In the primitive condition, as seen in Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes, the forelimb/pectoral fin develops earlier than the hindlimb/pelvic fin. This pattern is either retained or re-evolved in eulipotyphlan insectivores (= shrews, moles, hedgehogs, and solenodons) and taken to its extreme in marsupials. Although exceptions are known, the two anurans we examined reversed the pattern and displayed a significant advance in hindlimb development. All other species examined, including a bat with its greatly enlarged forelimbs modified as wings in the adult, showed near synchrony in the development of the fore and hindlimbs. CONCLUSION: Major heterochronic changes in early limb development and chondrogenesis were absent within major clades except Lissamphibia, and their presence across vertebrate phylogeny are not easily correlated with adaptive phenomena related to morphological differences in the adult fore- and hindlimbs. The apparently conservative nature of this trait means that changes in chondrogenetic patterns may serve as useful phylogenetic characters at higher taxonomic levels in tetrapods. Our results highlight the more important role generally played by allometric heterochrony in this instance to shape adult morphology.

Testing hypotheses of developmental constraints on mammalian brain partition evolution, using marsupials.

There is considerable debate about whether the partition volumes of the mammalian brain (e.g. cerebrum, cerebellum) evolve according to functional selection, or whether developmental constraints of conserved neurogenetic scheduling cause predictable partition scaling with brain size. Here we provide the first investigation of developmental constraints on partition volume growth, derived from contrast-enhanced micro-computed tomography of hydrogel-stabilized brains from three marsupial species. ANCOVAs of partition vs. brain volume scaling, as well as growth curve comparisons, do not support several hypotheses consistent with developmental constraints: brain partition growth significantly differs between species, or between developing vs. adult marsupials. Partition growth appears independent of adult brain volume, with no discernable growth spurts/lags relatable to internal structural change. Rather, adult proportion differences appear to arise through growth rate/duration heterochrony. Substantial phylogenetic signal in adult brain partitions scaling with brain volume also counters expectations of development-mediated partition scaling conservatism. However, the scaling of olfactory bulb growth is markedly irregular, consistent with suggestions that it is less constrained. The very regular partition growth curves suggest intraspecific developmental rigidity. We speculate that a rigid, possibly neuromer-model-like early molecular program might be responsible both for regular growth curves within species and impressions of a link between neurogenesis and partition evolution.

Females Choose Mates Based on Genetic Relatedness in a Small Dasyurid Marsupial, the Agile Antechinus (Antechinus agilis).

Females in a variety of taxa mate with more than one male during a single oestrus and exhibit mate preferences for genetically compatible males, but the influence of female mate choice on siring success is not clearly understood. Whether females choose to mate with more than one male or endure forced copulations is also often unknown. Here, we examined the effects of genetic relatedness on female mate choice and siring success in a small semelparous carnivorous marsupial, the agile antechinus (Antechinus agilis), during two consecutive breeding seasons. Experimental trials were conducted in captivity over periods of 72 hours using interconnected enclosures in which female antechinus could choose to access any of four separated males, but males were only able to access females that entered their quarters. Females had access to two genetically similar and two genetically dissimilar males simultaneously and all behavioural interactions were observed and scored from continuous video recordings. Genetic similarity between mates and paternity of young was determined by microsatellite analyses. Some females chose to enter and mate with more than one male during a single oestrus period. Although females investigated all males, they spent significantly more time visiting, and mated more times with, genetically dissimilar males. Males that were genetically dissimilar to the female sired 88% of subsequent offspring. Whilst males mated readily with most females, they rejected the advances of some receptive females, indicating a previously unexpected level of male mate choice. The results show that genetic relatedness between mates has a significant influence on mate choice, breeding and siring success in the agile antechinus.

Induced parthenogenetic activation of oocytes of the marsupial Sminthopsis macroura.

Maturation of marsupial oocytes in vitro, an important step in the analysis of early developmental events, has a low success rate and results from the artificial activation of oocytes, which may not include nuclear maturation. In Sminthopsis macroura, 24-h culture of advanced antral follicles in medium containing 10 microg mL(-1) porcine pituitary luteinising hormone (LH) yielded 60% of mature polarised oocytes with the first polar body; follicles cultured in medium without LH yielded only immature oocytes. Parthenogenetic activation of follicular, oviducal or uterine oocytes occurred when a two-step protocol was used. Sixty-one oocytes, exposed to 10 microm calcium ionophore A23187 for 10 min followed by 10 microg mL(-1) cycloheximide (protein synthesis inhibitor) for 5 h and then cultured for 20-24 h, were scored for signs of activation, namely extrusion of the second polar body and formation of the pronucleus. In each of 43 oocytes (70%), the extruded second polar body was present. Sixteen oocytes were analysed on slides after fixation and staining and, in 13 oocytes (81%) in this group, the female pronucleus was visible. No activation occurred following incubation of oocytes in medium containing Sr(2+) for 5 h (n = 14), 8% ethyl alcohol solution for 8 or 12 min (n = 13) or 10 microm calcium ionophore A23187 (n = 13) for 10-20 min followed by culture for 20-24 h.

Production of a biologically active recombinant marsupial growth factor using the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris.

The cytokine stem cell factor (SCF) and its interaction with its receptor c-kit plays an important role in the development of germ cells in eutherians. To investigate the putative roles of the SCF/c-kit system in marsupials, recombinant Australian brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) SCF was purified after secretion by the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris. The purification procedure utilized Ni2+ affinity chromatography with a poly-histidine tag engineered onto the C-terminus of the recombinant SCE The recombinant possum SCF had a molecular weight of 48 kDa, as determined by sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and was biologically active with respect to its ability to maintain and induce proliferation of marsupial primordial germ cells in vitro. Furthermore, the recombinant possum SCF stimulated proliferation of the cell line TF1 and this bioactivity could be inhibited using an antibody directed against recombinant mouse SCF. This source of biologically active marsupial SCF may prove useful in future studies of marsupial development.

Vertebrate extracellular preovulatory and postovulatory egg coats.

Extracellular egg coats deposited by maternal or embryonic tissues surround all vertebrate conceptuses during early development. In oviparous species, the time of hatching from extracellular coats can be considered equivalent to the time of birth in viviparous species. Extracellular coats must be lost during gestation for implantation and placentation to occur in some viviparous species. In the most recent classification of vertebrate extracellular coats, Boyd and Hamilton (Cleavage, early development and implantation of the egg. In: Parkes AS (ed.), Marshall's Physiology of Reproduction, vol. 2, 3rd ed. London: Longmans, Green & Co; 1961:1-126) defined the coat synthesized by the oocyte during oogenesis as primary and the coat deposited by follicle cells surrounding the oocyte as secondary. Tertiary egg coats are those synthesized and deposited around the primary or secondary coat by the maternal reproductive tract. This classification is difficult to reconcile with recent data collected using modern molecular biological techniques that can accurately establish the site of coat precursor synthesis and secretion. We propose that a modification to the classification by Boyd and Hamilton is required. Vertebrate egg coats should be classed as belonging to the following two broad groups: the preovulatory coat, which is deposited during oogenesis by the oocyte or follicle cells, and the postovulatory coats, which are deposited after fertilization by the reproductive tract or conceptus. This review discusses the origin and classification of vertebrate extracellular preovulatory and postovulatory coats and illustrates what is known about coat homology between the vertebrate groups.

Identification of novel and known ovary-specific genes including ZP2, in a marsupial, the stripe-faced dunnart.

During the early stages of oogenesis, oocyte-specific factors, synthesized by and stored within the oocyte, play critical roles during oogenesis, folliculogenesis, fertilization and early embryonic development in the mouse. The identification of marsupial maternal factors, expressed specifically in the ovary or oocyte, may provide an insight into the conserved evolutionary mechanisms that drive mammalian oocyte development to cleavage stages. In this study, 10 clones including dunnart ZP2 and c-mos, isolated by cDNA representational difference analysis, were validated by RT-PCR for ovary-specific expression. This novel combination of techniques to isolate ovary-specific genes has identified three novel genes with ovary-specific expression. Both dunnart ZP2 and c-mos exhibited ovary-specific expression, making this study the first isolation of c-mos in a marsupial species. Dunnart ZP2 expression was examined in detail by in situ hybridization and results indicate oocyte-specific expression of dunnart ZP2 in the cytoplasm of oocytes of primordial, primary and secondary follicles with expression being highest in oocytes of primary follicles. ZP2 was not expressed in granulosa cells of any follicles.

Marsupial oocytes, fertilization and embryonic development can provide useful tools to study developmental mechanisms.

An analysis of several features of marsupial oocytes and developmental stages from the zygote to the neonate shows the advantages of studying these to answer questions about mammalian development in general. Marsupials make good model systems providing that species have well established breeding and husbandry protocols, a detailed time table of embryonic development associated with appropriate monitoring to collect desired stages and an induced ovulation protocol to allow collection of normal oocytes and developmental stages. One of the specific features of marsupial development that would provide further insight into problems in mammalian development is distinct oocyte and/or zygote polarity. Additionally, because the conceptus is transparent, cell-cell associations can be studied until well after the hypoblast is formed. These combined features mean that lineage allocation and axis formation can be more easily studied and related to oocyte/zygote polarity and the order of cell division in these conceptuses. Another feature is the ability to collect normal unattached embryonic and fetal stages in some species and to culture conceptuses from the primitive streak stage to within a few hours of birth. This ability means that stages of organogenesis in most organ systems are readily accessible without the complications of implantation.

The potential for derivation of embryonic stem cells in vertebrates.

An analysis of embryonic stem cell (ESC) derivation in vertebrates has revealed that the potential to form ESC is dependent on the setting aside of a pluripotent lineage from extraembryonic lineages early in development. Derivation of ESCs from all amniotes and also many lower vertebrates with that pattern of lineage allocation is thus predictable. Culture conditions during derivation in all groups share some similar characteristics, most of which are related to retaining potency coupled with extensive proliferative capacity. This in turn probably reflects the environment that maintains and causes the primordial germ cells (PGC) to proliferate in vivo. Hence culture usually involves feeder layers and serum or factors derived from them and the use of small clumps of pluriblast or epiblast cells instead of total dissociation, to facilitate cell-cell signalling. Currently addition of FGF has proven to be important but that of LIF has not been fully explored.

Marsupial hypoblast: formation and differentiation of the bilaminar blastocyst in Sminthopsis macroura.

Hypoblast formation in Sminthopsis macroura starts in blastocysts with a size between 1.0 and 1.4 mm, in which cells appear to be similar to each other, and finishes at the complete 2.6- or 2.7-mm bilaminar blastocyst, which is fully lined with hypoblast cells. When hypoblast cells begin allocation, the pluriblast region progressively differentiates from the trophoblast. Some pluriblast cells, which are otherwise undistinguished, lying on one side near the boundary of the circular pluriblast, move to the inside as hypoblast cells by mitosis or migration. They initially line the pluriblast and then the trophoblast. Hypoblast cells continue to leave the pluriblast/epiblast and intercalate into the underlying hypoblast layer until the advanced stages of bilaminar blastocysts. Associated with the origin of the hypoblast cells, the residual surface epiblast cells become less flatted and more cuboidal or rounded in shape. Characteristics are increased density of ribosomes, granular endoplasmic reticulum and a marked apical-basal polarity related to apical microvilli and endocytosis and more vesicles with flocculent content and a loss of the crystalloid deposits that were typical for earlier stages. Trophoblast cells become flat and elongated with only few vesicles, and they transform into extra-embryonic ectoderm cells, which are broader, rather square and with a higher density of ribosomes. Hypoblast cells are characterized by a relatively high level of ribosomes and endoplasmic reticulum, fewer small vesicles and no noticeable endocytotic processes and initially form a reticulum because the cells preferentially migrate along cell-cell boundaries by extension of long filopodia. Once hypoblast cells reach the boundary of the embryonic area and extend to line the trophoblast, they progressively consolidate into a squamous epithelium. It is suggested that the origin of the hypoblast from one side of the pluriblast and its invasion under the trophoblast from proliferating centres at the edge of the embryonic area provide mechanisms for patterning epiblast, hypoblast, trophoblast and extra-embryonic ectoderm.

Trophoblast and hypoblast in the monotreme, marsupial and eutherian mammal: evolution and origins.

The pregastrula stage mammalian conceptus consists of both embryonic and non-embryonic components. The latter forms the bulk of the tissues, provides nutrition for the developing embryo and also contributes developmental signals that influence events within the embryo itself. Understanding the origins and relationships between the embryonic and extraembryonic cell lineages is thus central to understanding development in mammals. Despite the apparent gross differences in early developmental strategy and form, the conceptuses of eutherian, marsupial and monotreme mammals show some remarkable similarities in the lineage allocation to trophoblast and hypoblast and in the emergent properties of the two cell types. We suggest that the gross differences can be explained by two relatively small evolutionary timing changes affecting cell adhesion patterns and the polarisation of developmentally significant information. These changes result in the conversion of a unilaminar blastocyst to a morula form composed of blastomeres with increased regulatory capacity.