Knowledge, attitude, and practices regarding infection control measures among medical students.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the knowledge, attitude and reported practices of medical students regarding infection control measures. METHODS: The cross-sectional, questionnaire-based study was conducted at one public and one private medical university in Karachi from January to February 2016. The students enrolled were in their clinical years of the Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery course and their knowledge, attitude and practice were measured regarding infection control measures. SPSS 19 was used to analyse data. RESULTS: There were 413 medical students with a mean age of 21.78±1.10 years. Overall, 206(49.9%) students were from the private university and 207(50.1%) from the public institution. Students from the private institution had better knowledge compared to those from the public institution regarding hand hygiene (p<0.001), needlestick injuries (p<0.001) and surgical scrubbing (p=0.007), as well as better reported practices regarding hand hygiene (p<0.001) and surgical scrubbing (p=0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Knowledge and practices of medical students regarding the method of surgical scrubbing and needlestick injury protocols in particular needed improvement.

Does the digital economy improve female employment? A cross-country panel data analysis.

The digital economy has had an impact on the female employment rate over time. Currently, the researchers are more interested in investigating the impacts of the digital economy by focusing on its various aspects of female employment. The current study is motivated by this renewed interest to investigate the impact of the digital economy on female employment rates in Asian Developing Countries from 1990 to 2021. The digital economy is measured by several indicators such as fixed telephone subscriptions, fixed broadband subscriptions, mobile phone subscriptions, secure internet servers, and internet users. The Panel Autoregressive Distributed Lag (PARDL) model is used for analysis that reveals a positive relationship between female employment rates and the digital economy in both the short and long run. The control variables/factors, Education and GDP, also showed positive relationships with female employment. We suggest that governments prioritize funding for digital infrastructure and encourage fair access to technology, especially for women, based on our study. Furthermore, the positive effects of the digital economy on female employment can be strengthened through focused policy interventions, such as offering financial incentives to companies that hire and train women in digital skills. By utilizing these tactics, policymakers can guarantee that women are prepared to take advantage of the chances brought about by the quickly changing digital landscape, promoting gender equality and inclusive economic growth throughout Asian developing nations.

Biofabrication of Silver Nanoparticles Using Nostoc muscorum Lukesova 2/91: Optimization, Characterization, and Biological Applications.

Purpose: The biological synthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) has become a new methodology for the eco-friendly production of NPs with high scalability and biocompatibility. Cyanobacteria are one of the most widespread microorganisms on Earth and have been proven to be successful biofactories for synthesizing NPs. It is challenging to discover new microalgae with the potential to synthesize NPs of small size with high stability. Methods: Nostoc muscorum Lukesova 2/91 was isolated, purified, and identified morphologically and genetically using microscopy and DNA sequencing. Volatile biomolecules in aqueous algal extracts were assessed using gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). Results: Data showed that the main biomolecules were fatty acids and their esters, followed by secondary metabolites. Algal extract was used to convert silver nitrate (AgNO3) into silver NPs under various optimized parameters. 1 mM of AgNO3, 1:1 (V/V ratio of algal extract to AgNO3), 25 °C, under light illumination, for 24 h, at pH 7.4 were the optimum conditions for NP production (Nos@AgNPs). Nos@AgNPs were characterized using UV-VIS spectroscopy, FTIR, TEM, SEM, EDx, mapping, and a Zetasizer. The wavelength of Nos@AgNPs was 401.4 nm and their shapes were cubic to oval, with an average diameter of 11.8 ± 0.5 nm. FTIR spectroscopy revealed that proteins/polysaccharides could be the main reductants, whereas these molecules and/or fatty acids could be stabilizers for NP synthesis. Nos@AgNPs (86.15%) was silver and had a hydrodynamic diameter of 10.7 nm with a potential charge of -19.7 mV. Antiproliferative and antimicrobial activities of Nos@AgNPs were evaluated. Nos@AgNPs exhibited significant inhibitory activity against lung, colon, and breast cancer cells and considerable biocidal activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Conclusion: N. muscorum Lukesova 2/91 is an excellent source for the biofabrication of small and stable AgNPs with potent inhibitory effects against cancer and bacterial cells.

Evaluation of sodium citrate anticoagulant for the Resolution of edta-dependent pseudo Thrombocytopenia.

BACKGROUND: EDTA-dependent pseudo thrombocytopenia (EDTA-PTCP) refers to a falsely low platelet count occurring in the presence of ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid (EDTA) anticoagulant during blood sample collection, which results in the formation of platelet clumps in vitro. This phenomenon has significant clinical implications, including unnecessary administration of platelets. Our study aims to evaluate the efficacy of sodium citrate anticoagulant for the resolution of EDTAPTCP. METHODS: This retrospective study was conducted in the haematology laboratory of Shifa International Hospital (SIH), Pakistan. Patients with pseudo thrombocytopenia (i.e. platelet count less than 150,000/ul with platelet clumps seen on peripheral smear) were included in this study if they had blood samples drawn in both EDTA and sodium citrate tubes less than 48 hours apart. Data was analyzed using IBM® SPSS Software Version 22. RESULTS: A total of 151 study participants were included in this study. The mean age was 48.95±20.69 years and the majority were female (52.3%). Wilcoxon signed-rank test showed that there was a statistically significant difference in platelet count measured in both tubes (Z = -3.223, p=0.001). Overall, blood samples processed in sodium citrate tubes showed lower platelet count than EDTA samples. Sodium citrate anticoagulant was able to correct EDTA-PTCP in 47 (31.1%) of the cases. CONCLUSIONS: Sodium citrate anticoagulant was only able to resolve one-third of our EDTA-PTCP cases. Our findings do not support the use of sodium citrate as a suitable alternative for correction of EDTA-PTCP.

A Case Of Precursor B-Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia Masquerading As Hypereosinophilia And Space Occupying Lesion In A 14-Year-Old Boy.

Peripheral blood eosinophilia is associated with a variety of benign and neoplastic conditions. Rarely, marked eosinophilia can mask an underlying Acute Leukaemia, delaying the correct diagnosis and treatment. Here, we report a case of 14-year-old boy, who presented with marked eosinophilia and space occupying lesion in the brain. Bone marrow biopsy and biopsy of brain lesion were performed to assess the underlying disorder, revealing the unexpected diagnosis of Precursor B- Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia in this patient. Cytogenetic studies revealed a normal male karyotype. This case highlights the significance of considering the rare possibility of Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia among the differential diagnosis of persistent eosinophilia in order to facilitate prompt and appropriate treatment.

The effects of infrastructure development and carbon emissions on economic growth.

Infrastructure is a basic physical structure that is essential for the facilitation of society in terms of the provision of the basic framework that is required for the economy's output. The transport infrastructure is one of the most promising tools for generating economic growth and development because of its constructive impact on multidimensional aspects of society. The carbon emissions emanating from different sectors are used to capture the environmental quality in Pakistan and its association with road infrastructure of the country. Transportation is the main source of carbon emissions (GHGs), and road transport is the biggest emitter that accounted for more than 70% of emissions from GHGs in 2014 in Pakistan. We have used fully modified ordinary least square (FMOLS) and dynamic ordinary least square (DOLS) approaches to analyze the role of carbon emissions (aggregate and disaggregate forms) along with road infrastructure on economic growth for the period of 1972-2017. Moreover, before the main analysis, the co-integrating relationships are also analyzed in this study. Our findings pronounce that there is a positive observable relationship between road infrastructure and economic growth. However, the impact of carbon emissions (irrespective of aggregate or disaggregate forms) is negative on economic growth. The findings suggest that the improvements in economic growth can be achieved through road infrastructure structure development but at cost of deterioration of environmental quality (increase in carbon emissions). Although emissions diminish economic growth over time but on the other side, the economic incorporation increases through the investment in road infrastructure which is of assistance for the construction and manufacturing industry.

A Case of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Presenting as Pure Red Cell Aplasia.

Pure red cell aplasia (PRCA) is an uncommon condition, which is rarely associated with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE). Prompt identification and management of the underlying SLE results in correction of anemia. We report the case of a young female who presented due to severe anemia since the last two years. The cause of her anemia on initial investigations was not elicited in these two years, during which response to hematinics was poor and she remained transfusion dependent. Bone marrow biopsy showed PRCA after which autoimmune workup revealed SLE. Subsequently, treatment of SLE with steroids led to normalization of hemoglobin levels within a follow-up period of three months.

Early hematological indicators of severe COVID-19 disease in hospitalized patients: Data from a South Asian population.

INTRODUCTION: Outbreak of corona virus disease in 2019 (COVID-19) has resulted in significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. Our aim is to document hematological parameters of patients with COVID-19 during initial stage of diagnosis and to identify early hematological indicators of severe infection. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This retrospective study was conducted at Shifa International Hospital, Pakistan from April to November 2020. Patients hospitalized with COVID-19, diagnosed on RT-PCR and had a complete blood count (CBC) done within 48 hours of diagnosis were included. Data was analyzed using IBM® SPSS Statistics. RESULTS: A total of 425 patients were included in this study out of whom 272(64%) were males. The mean age was 55.61 ± 17.84 years. 95 patients (22.4%) had normal blood counts within 48 hours of COVID-19 diagnosis. Cytopenias were seen in 193(45.4%) patients. There were 75(17.6%) mortalities during the study period. Chi-square test showed that thrombocytopenia, lymphopenia and neutrophilic leucocytosis were significantly associated with mortality (P = .037, P < .001, P < .001 respectively) and need for ventilator (P = .009, P < .001, P < .001, respectively). Neutrophilia was also associated with development of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (P < .001). On ROC analysis, Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio yielded an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.693 and 0.660 for the outcomes mortality and need for ventilator, respectively. For a subset of 288 patients who had D-dimer levels checked within 48 hours of COVID-19 diagnosis, the AUC for mortality and ventilator need was 0.708 and 0.671, respectively. CONCLUSION: Hematological indices are vital indicators in the prognosis and risk stratification of COVID-19 during initial stages of disease.

Types and risk factors of violence experienced by people living with HIV, Pakistan: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: In Pakistan, data are lacking on the violence experienced by people living with HIV. AIMS: This study determined the prevalence and risk factors of violence (physical, psychological and sexual) in people living with HIV in Karachi, Pakistan. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study in 2016 of people living with HIV attending clinics of Bridge Consultants Foundation, a community-based care provider. Date were collected using an interview-based questionnaire. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was done to assess the risk factors for violence with adjusted odds ratios (aOR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) presented. RESULTS: The sample included 250 people living with HIV; 183 were men, 60 were women and 7 were transgender. The mean (standard deviation) age of the participants was 30 (6.5) years. The prevalence rates of psychological, sexual and physical violence were 79.6%, 74.8% and 64.4%, respectively. More women experienced physical violence than men (76.2% versus 60.7%). Psychological violence was associated with injecting drug use (aOR = 2.64, 95% CI: 1.27-5.50) and being married (aOR = 0.46, 95% CI: 0.24-0.90). Marriage (aOR = 2.30, 95% CI: 1.27-4.16) and having an HIV-positive partner (aOR = 2.07, 95% CI: 1.09-3.92) were risk factors for sexual violence. Physical violence was associated with young age (aOR = 0.95; 95% CI: 0.91-0.99) and having an HIV-positive partner (aOR = 2.17, 95% CI: 1.10-4.26). CONCLUSION: Violence is an important public health problem affecting people living with HIV in Pakistan. This issue needs to be addressed by the government and nongovernmental organizations.

Risk Factors for Returning to the Operating Room for a Second Surgery After Midurethral Sling for Stress Urinary Incontinence.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to identify risk factors for having to return to the operating room for a second surgery after midurethral sling (MUS). METHODS: We used a case-control design. Cases return to operating room were a composite of 6 surgical complications or recurrent stress urinary incontinence because we believed that women would consider return to the operating room (OR) a similar MUS-related complication regardless of indication. Cases were obtained from Cerner Health Facts database, including 213 hospitals, using current procedural technology codes 57288 (repeat sling), 57287 (sling revision), and 53500 (urethrolysis) for procedures after index MUS. Controls no return to OR were randomly selected in 4:1 ratio from the remaining slings without these procedures. Multivariable regression analysis included all variables with P < 0.10 on univariable analysis. RESULTS: Between January 1, 2010, and December 31, 2016, 1247 patients returned to the OR of 17,953 patients who underwent initial MUS (6.9%). After adjusting for confounders, white race (OR, 1.47 [1.20-1.81]), lack of concomitant prolapse surgery (OR, 1.37 [1.18-1.59]), immunosuppressant drugs (OR, 1.27 [1.12-1.45]), and blood thinner use (OR, 1.38 [1.18-1.62]) significantly impacted the odds for returning to the OR. Anticholinergic use and smoking tobacco or marijuana, although significant on univariable analysis, were no longer significant after adjusting for confounders. CONCLUSIONS: The rate of a second surgery after MUS using a composite outcome, over a 7-year period including multiple diagnoses, is 6.9%. White race, using immunosuppressant drugs, using blood thinners, and not having concomitant prolapse surgery are all risk factors for having second surgery after MUS.

HIV Silencing and Inducibility Are Heterogeneous and Are Affected by Factors Intrinsic to the Virus.

Transcriptionally silent HIV proviruses form the major obstacle to eradicating HIV. Many studies of HIV latency have focused on the cellular mechanisms that maintain silencing of proviral DNA. Here we show that viral sequence variation affecting replicative ability leads to variable rates of silencing and ability to reactivate. We studied naturally occurring and engineered polymorphisms in a recently identified exonic splice enhancer (ESEtat) that regulates tat mRNA splicing and constructed viruses with increased (strain M1), reduced (strain M2), or completely absent (strain ERK) binding of splicing factors essential for optimal production of tat mRNA resulting in a corresponding change in Tat activity. The mutations affected viral replication, with M1 having wild-type (WT) kinetics, M2 exhibiting reduced kinetics, and ERK showing completely abrogated replication. Using single-round infection with green fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing viruses to study proviral gene expression, we observed progressively greater rates of silencing relating to the degree of ESEtat disruption, with the WT strain at 53%, strain M2 at 69%, and strain ERK at 94%. By stimulating infected cells with a latency reversal agent (phorbol myristate acetate [PMA], panobinostat, or JQ1), we observed that the dose required to achieve 50% of the maximum signal was lowest in the WT, intermediate in M2, and highest in ERK, indicating progressively higher thresholds for reactivation. These results suggest that the ability of silent proviruses to reactivate from latency is variable and that minor differences in the viral sequence can alter the proportion of silenced viruses as well as the threshold required to induce silenced viruses to reactivate and express.IMPORTANCE A reservoir of infected cells in which the HIV genome is transcriptionally silent is acknowledged to be the principal barrier to eradicating the virus from an infected person. A number of cellular processes are implicated in this silencing; however, the viral factors that may contribute remain underexplored. Here we examined mutations altering the correct splicing of HIV gene products as a model to study whether differences in viral sequence can affect either the proportion of viruses that are active or silent or their ability to reactivate. We found that some naturally occurring variations result in viruses that are silenced at a higher rate and require a proportionally increased stimulus for reactivation from latency. These data suggest that the silencing and reactivation behavior of HIV exists in a spectrum, influenced by factors intrinsic to the virus.

Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Diseases among Recently Diagnosed Patients with Diabetes Mellitus and Risk Factors.

AIM: Prevalence of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), both of which represent are related to nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), is an increasing trend among Asian people. The study aimed to assess the prevalence of NAFLD in T2DM with their risk factors in the Southern part of Pakistan. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A cross-sectional study was accomplished during 2008-2013 at The Aga Khan University Hospital, Karachi, Pakistan. Adult patients diagnosed with T2DM during last 6 months were enrolled in this study. NAFLD was identified using ultrasound of the liver. Clinical and biochemical relevant measurements were accomplished. RESULTS: Out of a total of 203 patients with T2DM, NAFLD was detected in 146 patients (71.9%). Multivariate analysis revealed that NAFLD was significantly associated with dyslipidemia (OR 2.38, 95% CI 1.06-5.34, p = 0.035), higher LDL (OR 1.02, 95%CI 1.01-1.03, p = 0.003), H bA1c (OR1.27, 95% CI 0.97-1.68, p = 0.045) and diastolic blood pressure (OR 1.05, 95% CI 1.01-1.10, p = 0.009). The highest odds of 10.8 for NAFLD (95% CI 4.9-24, p = 0.001) was found for the combination of hypertension, dyslipidemia, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, lack of physical inactivity, triglycerides, lower HDL, LDL, HbA1c, and ALT (multiplicative analysis). CONCLUSION: High incidence of NAFLD with the association of different lifestyle-related factors has been analyzed. It unmasks the need for screening for NAFLD in newly diagnosed DM patients in Pakistan with the assessment of parameters of risk factors. HOW TO CITE THIS ARTICLE: Butt AS, Hamid S, et al. Nonalcoholic fatty Liver Diseases Among Recently Diagnosed Patients With Diabetes Mellitus and Risk Factors. Euroasian J Hepatogastroenterol 2019;9(1):9-13.

Impact of direct acting antivirals on occurrence and recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma: Biologically plausible or an epiphenomenon?

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Chronic hepatitis C virus infection (HCV) is the most common cause of HCC in many European countries, Japan and Pakistan. Introduction of the new direct acting antivirals (DAAs) has revolutionized the management of HCV worldwide, with high rates of sustained virologic response in patients who could not have tolerated the previous interferon based treatments. However, recently there have been reports raising caution about the long term effects of DAAs, particularly a possible increased risk of HCC. Therefore this review explores the current molecular studies as well as clinical data that investigate the impact of DAAs on occurrence and recurrence of HCC.

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Text Messaging and Phone Call Reminders to Minimize No Show at Pediatric Outpatient Clinics in Pakistan: Protocol for a Mixed-Methods Study.

BACKGROUND: Missing health care appointments without canceling in advance results in a no show, a vacant appointment slot that cannot be offered to others. No show can be reduced by reminding patients about their appointment in advance. In this regard, mobile health (mHealth) strategy is to use text messaging (short message service, SMS), which is available on all cellular phones, including cheap low-end handsets. Nonattendance for appointments in health care results in wasted resources and disturbs the planned work schedules. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study is to evaluate the efficacy of the current text messaging (SMS) and call-based reminder system and further explore how to improve the attendance at the pediatric outpatient clinics. The primary objectives are to (1) determine the efficacy of the current clinic appointment reminder service at pediatric outpatient clinics at Aga Khan University Hospital, (2) assess the mobile phone access and usage among caregivers visiting pediatrics consultant clinics, and (3) explore the perception and barriers of parents regarding the current clinic appointment reminder service at the pediatric outpatient clinics at Aga Khan University Hospital. METHODS: The study uses a mixed-method design that consists of 3 components: (1) retrospective study (component A) which aims to determine the efficacy of text messaging (SMS) and phone call-based reminder service on patient's clinic attendance during January to June 2017 (N=58,517); (2) quantitative (component B) in which a baseline survey will be conducted to assess the mobile phone access and usage among parents/caregivers of children visiting pediatrics consultant clinics (n=300); and (3) qualitative (component C) includes in-depth interviews and focus group discussion with parents/caregivers of children visiting the pediatric consultancy clinic and with health care providers and administrative staff. Main constructs will be to explore perceptions and barriers related to existing clinic appointment reminder service. Ethics approval has been obtained from the Ethical Review Committee, Aga Khan University, Pakistan (4770-Ped-ERC-17). RESULTS: Results will be disseminated to pediatric quality public health and mHealth communities through scientific meetings and through publications, nationally and internationally. CONCLUSIONS: This study will provide insight regarding efficacy of using mHealth-based reminder services for patient's appointments in low- and middle-income countries setup. The finding of this study will be used to recommend further enhanced mHealth-based solutions to improve patient appointments and decrease no show.

Closed Loop Obstruction from Epiploic Appendage Adhesion Mimicking Pericecal Internal Hernia.

Internal hernias involve herniation of viscera into an abdominal compartment through a defect in the mesentery or peritoneum. Herniation may occur through normal anatomic structures or through pathologic defects secondary to congenital abnormality, inflammation, trauma, or surgery. Patients with an internal hernia most commonly present with acute bowel obstruction. While internal hernia is an uncommon cause of bowel obstruction, making up approximately 0.2-0.9% of cases (Choi, 2017), the incidence is increasing due to greater use of techniques such as Roux-en-Y for liver transplant and gastric bypass. There are multiple types of internal hernia, including paraduodenal, Foramen of Winslow, sigmoid mesocolon, pericecal, transmesenteric, transomental, supravesical, and pelvic. We present a case in which a transverse colon epiploic appendage adhesion to the ascending colon mesentery resulted in a closed loop obstruction mimicking a pericecal internal hernia. Radiologists should be aware of the imaging findings of closed loop obstruction related to internal hernia and maintain a high index of suspicion in patients with history of prior abdominal surgery presenting with bowel obstruction. It is useful for radiologists to understand that adhesions may result in internal hernias, which mimic the classically described categories.

Charlson Comorbidity Index for Prediction of Outcome of Acute Kidney Injury in Critically Ill Patients.

INTRODUCTION: This study aimed to determine predictors of outcomes in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury (AKI), and to study the impact of the Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI) as a prognostic indicator. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This retrospective study included critically ill patients who were admitted with AKI or developed AKI during their hospital stay. The impact of comorbidity was evaluated by the CCI, while severity of AKI was assessed by the RIFLE criteria. RESULTS: The mean age of 786 patients with AKI was 59.0 ± 17.0 years (59% men). The most common cause was sepsis in 51% of the patients. In-hospital mortality rate was 42%. The need for mechanical ventilation (odds ratio [OR], 1.93; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.23 to 3.04), vasoactive drugs (OR, 9.67; 95% CI, 6.35 to 14.73), dialysis (OR, 1.78; 95% CI, 1.14 to 2.78), failure class of RIFLE criteria (OR, 2.02; 95% CI, 1.00 to 4.08), and a CCI greater than 6 (OR, 2.20; 95% CI, 1.38 to 3.52) were independently associated with mortality. At 90 days of follow-up, 6% of the patients were dialysis dependent, while 32% and 62% had partial and complete recovery, respectively. In multivariable analysis, a CCI greater than 6 (OR, 0.47; 95% CI, 0.26 to 0.83), need for dialysis in hospital (OR, 0.31; 95% CI, 0.17 to 0.54), and failure class (OR, 0.19; 95% CI, 0.07 to 0.55) were independent predictors of poor renal outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: The CCI independently predicts in-patient mortality and poor renal outcomes in patients with AKI.

Validation of bioelectrical impedance analysis for assessing dry weight of dialysis patients in Pakistan.

Accurate dry weight estimation (DW) to achieve euvolemia is one of the key objectives of hemodialysis (HD). While conventionally DW is estimated by clinical examination, bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) has been proposed as an objective method to determine DW and has been tested extensively in the Western population. We aim to validate BIA for determining DW in a Pakistani population against the conventional clinician's method. This is a single-center validation study conducted at two outpatient HD units of Aga Khan Hospital, Karachi. One hundred and forty-eight DW readings of patients who were on maintenance HD were taken both by BIA technology and by clinical assessment. The clinician was blinded to readings obtained by BIA. Data analysis was carried out using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 19. Median age of patients was 63 years (range 12-89). Nearly 54.1% of the samples were female (n = 80). Spearman's correlation between the clinician's estimate and BIA-derived DW showed a correlation coefficient of 0.982, which was statistically significant (P <0.001). This association remained significant when stratified analysis was carried out by dividing the sample into subgroups according to age, gender, body mass index, and total body water content. Inter-rater reliability analysis using the kappa statistics showed almost perfect agreement between the two methods, κ = 0.929 (95% confidence interval, 0.878-0.980, P <0.001). BIA has been validated as a tool for DW assessment of HD patients in Pakistan in comparison to clinical method.

Viral Hepatitis in Pakistan: Past, Present, and Future.

Viral hepatitis is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide and a rising cause for concern in Asian countries. Weather it is blood borne or water/food borne hepatotropic virus, increasing burden is alarming for Asian countries. In this review we have evaluated the existing data to estimate the burden of viral hepatitis in populations of all age groups nationwide, along with an assessment of the risk factors and preventive and management strategies currently employed in Pakistan. The aim of our work is to consolidate and supplement the present knowledge regarding viral hepatitis in light of past and present trends and to provide future direction to the existing health policies. HOW TO CITE THIS ARTICLE: Butt AS, Sharif F. Viral Hepatitis in Pakistan: Past, Present, and Future. Euroasian J Hepato-Gastroenterol 2016;6(1):70-81.