Climate change and infectious disease surveillance in Nepal: qualitative study exploring social, cultural, political and institutional factors influencing disease surveillance.

BACKGROUND: To explore the impacts of contextual issues encompassing social, cultural, political and institutional elements, on the operation of public health surveillance systems in Nepal concerning the monitoring of infectious diseases in the face of a changing climate. METHODS: Semi-structured interviews (n = 16) were conducted amongst key informants from the Department of Health Services, Health Information Management System, Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, World Health Organization, and experts working on infectious disease and climate change in Nepal, and data were analysed using thematic analysis technique. RESULTS: Analysis explicates how climate change is constructed as a contingent risk for infectious diseases transmission and public health systems, and treated less seriously than other 'salient' public health risks, having implications for how resources are allocated. Further, analysis suggests a weak alliance among different stakeholders, particularly policy makers and evidence generators, resulting in the continuation of traditional practices of infectious diseases surveillance without consideration of the impacts of climate change. CONCLUSIONS: We argue that along with strengthening systemic issues (epidemiological capacity, data quality and inter-sectoral collaboration), it is necessary to build a stronger political commitment to urgently address the influence of climate change as a present and exponential risk factor in the spread of infectious disease in Nepal.

Gut microbiome transition across a lifestyle gradient in Himalaya.

The composition of the gut microbiome in industrialized populations differs from those living traditional lifestyles. However, it has been difficult to separate the contributions of human genetic and geographic factors from lifestyle. Whether shifts away from the foraging lifestyle that characterize much of humanity's past influence the gut microbiome, and to what degree, remains unclear. Here, we characterize the stool bacterial composition of four Himalayan populations to investigate how the gut community changes in response to shifts in traditional human lifestyles. These groups led seminomadic hunting-gathering lifestyles until transitioning to varying levels of agricultural dependence upon farming. The Tharu began farming 250-300 years ago, the Raute and Raji transitioned 30-40 years ago, and the Chepang retain many aspects of a foraging lifestyle. We assess the contributions of dietary and environmental factors on their gut-associated microbes and find that differences in the lifestyles of Himalayan foragers and farmers are strongly correlated with microbial community variation. Furthermore, the gut microbiomes of all four traditional Himalayan populations are distinct from that of the Americans, indicating that industrialization may further exacerbate differences in the gut community. The Chepang foragers harbor an elevated abundance of taxa associated with foragers around the world. Conversely, the gut microbiomes of the populations that have transitioned to farming are more similar to those of Americans, with agricultural dependence and several associated lifestyle and environmental factors correlating with the extent of microbiome divergence from the foraging population. The gut microbiomes of Raute and Raji reveal an intermediate state between the Chepang and Tharu, indicating that divergence from a stereotypical foraging microbiome can occur within a single generation. Our results also show that environmental factors such as drinking water source and solid cooking fuel are significantly associated with the gut microbiome. Despite the pronounced differences in gut bacterial composition across populations, we found little differences in alpha diversity across lifestyles. These findings in genetically similar populations living in the same geographical region establish the key role of lifestyle in determining human gut microbiome composition and point to the next challenging steps of determining how large-scale gut microbiome reconfiguration impacts human biology.

Diagnostic evaluation of IgM ELISA and IgM Immunofluorescence assay for the diagnosis of Acute Scrub Typhus in central Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Scrub typhus is an acute febrile illness caused by the obligate intracellular bacterium, Orientia tsutsugamushi. Immunochromatography (ICT) and IgM ELISA are two of the routinely employed antibody based assays for diagnosis of Scrub typhus fever in Nepal, although the recommended gold standard diagnostic test is IgM Immunofluorescence assay (IFA). This study evaluated InBios Scrub Typhus Detect™ Immunoglobulin M (IgM) ELISA and IgM Immunofluorescence assays in single serum sample at the time of admission. METHOD: Study participants (1585 suspected cases), were enrolled based on acute febrile illness with suspected scrub typhus cases in central Nepal. Blood sample was collected from the suspected patients of scrub typhus, presenting with acute febrile illness. IgM antibody to Orientia tsusugamushi was detected by using Scrub Typhus Detect™ Kit and an in-house IgM IFA. The IFA assay was performed with the Gilliam, Karp, Kato strains and O. chuto antigens following the ARRL protocol. RESULT: Statistical analysis of IgM ELISA results when compared to reference test, IgM IFA results demonstrated the following characteristics, sensitivity 84.0% (95%CI: 79.73-87.68%), specificity 94.82% (95% CI: 93.43-95.99%), positive likelihood ratio 16.21% (95% CI: 12.71-20.67%), negative likelihood ratio 0.17% (95% CI: 0.13-0.21%), disease prevalence 22.08% (95% CI: 20.06 -24.21%), positive predictive value 82.12% (95% CI: 78.28-85.42%) and negative predictive value 95.44% (95% CI: 94.27-96.38%) respectively. CONCLUSION: Although IgM IFA is considered the gold standard test for the diagnosis of scrub typhus cases, it is relatively expensive, requires trained personal and a microscope with fluorescence filters. Scrub typhus IgM ELISA may be the best alternative test and possible viable option for resource limited endemic countries like Nepal.

Bacteria on Medical Professionals' White Coats in a University Hospital.

The transient contamination of medical professional's attires including white coats is one of the major vehicles for the horizontal transmission of microorganisms in the hospital environment. This study was carried out to determine the degree of contamination by bacterial agents on the white coats in a tertiary care hospital in Nepal. Sterilized uniforms with fabric patches of 10 cm × 15 cm size attached to the right and left pockets were distributed to 12 nurses of six different wards of a teaching hospital at the beginning of their work shift. Worn coats were collected at the end of the shifts and the patches were subjected for total bacterial count and identification of selected bacterial pathogens, as prioritized by the World Health Organization (WHO). Fifty percent of the sampled swatches were found to be contaminated by pathogenic bacteria. The average colony growth per square inch of the patch was 524 and 857 during first and second workdays, respectively, indicating an increase of 63.6% in colony counts. The pathogens detected on patches were Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Acinetobacter sp. Additional bacteria identified included Bacillus sp., Micrococcus sp., and coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS). The nurses working in the maternity department had their white coats highly contaminated with bacteria. On the other hand, the least bacterial contamination was recorded from the nurses of the surgery ward. One S. aureus isolate from the maternity ward was resistant to methicillin. This study showed that pathogens belonging to the WHO list of critical priority and high priority have been isolated from white coats of nurses, thus posing the risk of transmission to patients. White coats must be worn, maintained, and washed properly to reduce bacterial contamination load and to prevent cross-contamination of potential superbugs. The practice of wearing white coats outside the healthcare zone should be strictly discouraged.

Carriage of Extended-Spectrum-ß-Lactamase- and AmpC-ß-Lactamase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae (ESBL-PE) in Healthy Community and Outpatient Department (OPD) Patients in Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Extended-spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL)- and AmpC-ß-lactamase (ESBL)- and AmpC-Enterobacteriaceae have recently emerged as a public threat in the treatment of nosocomial as well as community-acquired infections. Very little information is currently available about its existence in Nepal. We, therefore, aim to determine the prevalence of ESBL and AmpC-ß-lactamase (ESBL)- and AmpC-Enterobacteriaceae have recently emerged as a public threat in the treatment of nosocomial as well as community-acquired infections. Very little information is currently available about its existence in Nepal. We, therefore, aim to determine the prevalence of ESBL and AmpC. METHODS: During a 6-month period (November 2014-April 2015), a total of 190 stool specimens from 190 participants were obtained from different population. Of the total 260 fecal isolates, 152 from outpatient department (OPD) and 108 from healthy volunteer were collected. Stool specimens were cultured and enterobacterial isolates were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility tests according to the standard microbiologic guidelines. ESBL was screened using ceftazidime (CAZ, 30 µg) and cefotaxime (CTX, 30 µg) and cefotaxime (CTX, 30 ß-lactamase (ESBL)- and AmpC. RESULTS: The prevalence of ESBL, AmpC-ß-lactamase (ESBL)- and AmpC-ß-lactamase (ESBL)- and AmpC-Enterobacteriaceae have recently emerged as a public threat in the treatment of nosocomial as well as community-acquired infections. Very little information is currently available about its existence in Nepal. We, therefore, aim to determine the prevalence of ESBL and AmpC-E. coli was 70.2% followed by K. pneumoniae (12.7%), and among AmpC-ß-lactamase (ESBL)- and AmpC-E. coli was 70.2% followed by E. coli was 70.2% followed by K. pneumoniae (12.7%), and among AmpC-K. pneumoniae (12.7%), and among AmpC-C. freundii 2/7 (28.57%) were detected highest among AmpC-ß-lactamase (ESBL)- and AmpC. CONCLUSION: Our study revealed a high prevalence of ESBL- and AmpC-ß-lactamase-producing enteric pathogen in Nepalese OPD and healthy population. The significant increase of these isolates and increased rate of drug resistance indicates a serious threat that stress the need to implement the surveillance system and a proper control measure so as to limit the spread of ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae (ESBL-PE) in both OPD as well as in community. Therefore, healthcare providers need to be aware that ESBL- and AmpC-ß-lactamase-producing strains are not only circulating in hospital environments but also in the community and should be dealt with accordingly.ß-lactamase (ESBL)- and AmpC-Enterobacteriaceae have recently emerged as a public threat in the treatment of nosocomial as well as community-acquired infections. Very little information is currently available about its existence in Nepal. We, therefore, aim to determine the prevalence of ESBL and AmpC-ß-lactamase (ESBL)- and AmpC.

Melioidosis: misdiagnosed in Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Melioidosis is a life-threatening infectious disease that is caused by gram negative bacteria Burkholderia pseudomallei. This bacteria occurs as an environmental saprophyte typically in endemic regions of south-east Asia and northern Australia. Therefore, patients with melioidosis are at high risk of being misdiagnosed and/or under-diagnosed in South Asia. CASE PRESENTATION: Here, we report two cases of melioidosis from Nepal. Both of them were diabetic male who presented themselves with fever, multiple abscesses and developed sepsis. They were treated with multiple antimicrobial agents including antitubercular drugs before being correctly diagnosed as melioidosis. Consistent with this, both patients were farmer by occupation and also reported travelling to Malaysia in the past. The diagnosis was made consequent to the isolation of B. pseudomallei from pus samples. Accordingly, they were managed with intravenous meropenem followed by oral doxycycline and cotrimoxazole. CONCLUSION: The case reports raise serious concern over the existing unawareness of melioidosis in Nepal. Both of the cases were left undiagnosed for a long time. Therefore, clinicians need to keep a high index of suspicion while encountering similar cases. Especially diabetic-farmers who present with fever and sepsis and do not respond to antibiotics easily may turn out to be yet another case of melioidosis. Ascertaining the travel history and occupational history is of utmost significance. In addition, the microbiologist should be trained to correctly identify B. pseudomallei as it is often confused for other Burkholderia species. The organism responds only to specific antibiotics; therefore, correct and timely diagnosis becomes crucial for better outcomes.

Molecular epidemiology of Rotavirus causing diarrhea among children less than five years of age visiting national level children hospitals, Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Rotaviruses are the major cause of diarrhea among the infants and young children all over the world causing over 500,000 deaths and 2.4 million hospitalizations each year. In Nepal Rotavirus infection positivity rates ranges from 17.0 to 39.0% among children less than 5 years. However, little is known about the molecular genotypes of Rotavirus prevailing. The objective of this study was to estimate the burden of Rotavirus gastroenteritis and determine the genotypes of Rotavirus among children less than 5 years. METHODS: The cross sectional study was conducted from January to November 2014 among children less than 5 years old visiting Kanti Children's Hospital and Tribhuvan University Teaching Hospital. Rotavirus antigen detection was performed by Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) using ProSpecT Rotavirus Microplate Assay. Among the Rotavirus antigen positive samples, 59 samples were used for Rotavirus RNA extraction. Multiplex PCR was performed to identify G type comprising G1-G4, G8-G10 and G12 and P type comprising P[4], P[6], P[8], P[9], P[10], and P[11]. RESULTS: A total of 717 diarrheal stool samples were collected from patients ranging from 10 days to 59 months of age. Rotavirus antigen positive was found among (N = 164)22.9% of patients. The highest number of the diarrhea was seen in January. Molecular analysis of Rotavirus genotypes revealed that the predominant G-Type was G12 (36%) followed by G9 (31%), G1 (21%), G2 (8.6%). The predominant P- type was P6 (32.8%) followed by P8 (31%), P10 (14.8%), P4 (14.8%). A total of seven G/P type combinations were identified the most common being G12P [6] (35.8%), G1P [8] (15.1%), G9P [8] (15.1%). CONCLUSION: Rotavirus diarrhea is, mostly affecting children from 7 to 24 months in Nepal, mostly occurring in winter. The circulating genotypes in the country are found to be primarily unusual genotypes and predominance of G12P[6]. It is recommended to conduct genotyping of Rotavirus on large samples before starting vaccination in the country.

Bacterial meningitis in children under 15 years of age in Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Bacterial meningitis in children is a life-threatening problem resulting in severe morbidity and mortality. For the prompt initiation of antibacterial therapy, rapid and reliable diagnostic methods are of utmost importance. Therefore, this study was designed to find out the rate of bacterial pathogens of meningitis from suspected cases by performing conventional methods and latex agglutination. METHODS: A descriptive type of study was carried out from May 2012 to April 2013. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) specimens from 252 suspected cases of meningitis were subjected for Gram staining, bacterial culture and latex agglutination test. The identification of growth of bacteria was done following standard microbiological methods recommended by American Society for Microbiology. Antibiotic sensitivity testing was done by modified Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method. RESULTS: From the total 252 suspected cases, 7.2 % bacterial meningitis was revealed by Gram staining and culture methods whereas latex agglutination method detected 5.6 %. Gram-negative organisms contributed the majority of the cases (72.2 %) with Haemophilus influenzae as the leading pathogen for meningitis. Overall, 33.3 % mortality rate was found. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, a significant rate of bacterial meningitis was found in this study prompting concern for national wide surveillance.

Awareness and coverage of mass drug administration for elimination of lymphatic filariasis: a community based cross sectional study in Nepal.

Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is among the major public health problems in Nepal. The disease is a major cause of morbidities primarily, lymphedema of legs and hydrocele and it impedes socio economic development in many endemic areas of the country. This study is aimed at exploring the understanding of people about mass drug administration (MDA) of the said disease and the status of compliance of MDA in Nepal. This study is a cross sectional study carried out among 894 household samples in three of the sixty LF endemic districts. The selected districts were Dhading, Kapilvastu and Kailali. The sentinel surveillance of sites in three districts constituted the sampling frame at the first stage. The peripheral health care centers in the sentinel sites constituted the sampling frame at the second stage of sampling. The coverage of MDA was 95.5 %. However, the compliance was less. Only 71.6 % of the respondents who took the drugs from health workers swallowed the diethyl carbamazine (DEC) completely, other did not swallow. In the present study, majority of respondents reported that they had heard or seen persons with side effects of DEC in their community. A total of 20 % of respondents reported that they had side effects after having DEC and only 3.9 % of these side effects were treated. The Female Community Health volunteers (FCHVs), health workers and radio/Television (TV) were the chief sources of MDA related information. This study recommends for a concerted public health action combining effective drug delivery mechanism and sound public awareness campaigns. The community people need to be made aware beforehand about the location, time of drug distribution. Also public awareness of the DEC should be conducted so that people would trust it and comply with the drug regime. Along with the health workers and radio/TV that has been used traditionally, we recommend mobilization of FCHVs in the public awareness campaigns the MDA campaigns.

Nepali oral microbiomes reflect a gradient of lifestyles from traditional to industrialized.

Background: Lifestyle plays an important role in shaping the gut microbiome. However, its contributions to the oral microbiome remains less clear, due to the confounding effects of geography and methodology in investigations of populations studied to date. Furthermore, while the oral microbiome seems to differ between foraging and industrialized populations, we lack insight into whether transitions to and away from agrarian lifestyles shape the oral microbiota. Given the growing interest in so-called 'vanishing microbiomes' potentially being a risk factor for increased disease prevalence in industrialized populations, it is important that we distinguish lifestyle from geography in the study of microbiomes across populations. Results: Here, we investigate salivary microbiomes of 63 Nepali individuals representing a spectrum of lifestyles: foraging, subsistence farming (individuals that transitioned from foraging to farming within the last 50 years), agriculturalists (individuals that have transitioned to farming for at least 300 years), and industrialists (expatriates that immigrated to the United States within the last 20 years). We characterize the role of lifestyle in microbial diversity, identify microbes that differ between lifestyles, and pinpoint specific lifestyle factors that may be contributing to differences in the microbiomes across populations. Contrary to prevailing views, when geography is controlled for, oral microbiome alpha diversity does not differ significantly across lifestyles. Microbiome composition, however, follows the gradient of lifestyles from foraging through agrarianism to industrialism, supporting the notion that lifestyle indeed plays a role in the oral microbiome. Relative abundances of several individual taxa, including Streptobacillus and an unclassified Porphyromonadaceae genus, also mirror lifestyle. Finally, we identify specific lifestyle factors associated with microbiome composition across the gradient of lifestyles, including smoking and grain source. Conclusion: Our findings demonstrate that by controlling for geography, we can isolate an important role for lifestyle in determining oral microbiome composition. In doing so, we highlight the potential contributions of several lifestyle factors, underlining the importance of carefully examining the oral microbiome across lifestyles to improve our understanding of global microbiomes.

Bacteriological Profile of Surgical Site Infection Following Gastrointestinal Surgery and Their Antibiogram.

BACKGROUND: Surgical site infection is one of the common complication following abdominal surgery. It causes great morbidity and mortality, further increasing prevalence of multidrug resistant bacteria have made its management very challenging. The current study aims to identify causative agent responsible for surgical site infection and their antibiotic resistance patterns. METHODS: This study was conducted among patients developing surgical site infection following gastrointestinal surgery in Tribhuvan university teaching hospital over a period of one year. The samples were collected and processed according to standard methods. The bacterial pathogens with their antimicrobial susceptibility were determined and resistant pattern like methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus and extended spectrum beta lactamase were further detected. RESULTS: A total of 832 patients had under gone gastrointestinal surgery during the study period. Among them, 162 cases (19.5%) developed surgical site infection and 125 cases showed growth in culture. A total of 160 aerobic bacteria were isolated; Escherichia coli (29.9%) was the commonest organism with 40.8% being extended spectrum beta lactamase producer and 47.4% of Staphylococcus aureus were methicillin resistant. About 75.9% (85/112) of gram negative bacteria and 60.4% (29/48) gram positive bacteria were multi drug resistant. CONCLUSIONS: The burden of multi drug resistant bacteria causing surgical site infection is high which needs to be addressed timely. Good surveillance of bacterial antibiogram and rational antimicrobial use is necessary to reduce emergence and spread of resistant bacteria.

Epidemiology of Taenia solium in Nepal: is it influenced by the social characteristics of the population and the presence of Taenia asiatica?

The transmission of the zoonotic pork tapeworms Taenia solium and T. asiatica depends on a combination of specific risk factors, such as open defecation, backyard pig raising and the consumption of raw or undercooked pork and viscera. A community-based survey was conducted among 289 households in south-eastern Nepal to study the heterogeneity of these risk factor frequencies as a function of the social composition of the population. The frequency of open defecation, backyard pig raising and pork consumption differed significantly (P < 0.005) among the different coexisting caste and ethnic groups. In the same survey, the taeniosis prevalence was examined among the different groups. Tapeworm carriers were identified at a high prevalence among the Dum, one of the most disadvantaged communities of Nepal. A PCR-RFLP assay revealed that all collected tapeworm specimens were T. asiatica, a species thus far not known to occur in South Asia. These results can help to understand the epidemiology of T. solium in Nepal, which appears to be more complex than thought so far.

Prevalence and determinants of hypertension in underrepresented indigenous populations of Nepal.

Indigenous populations residing in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) are highly underrepresented in medicine and public health research. Specifically, data on non-communicable diseases (NCDs) from indigenous populations remains scarce. Despite the increasing burden of NCDs in the Himalayan region, their prevalence in many indigenous populations remains understudied. The nationally representative public health surveys often do not include the indigenous communities, especially those that reside in rural areas or exist in small numbers. This observational cross-sectional survey study aimed to assess the prevalence of three NCD risk factors namely obesity, hypertension, and tachycardia and identify dietary and lifestyle variables associated with them across underrepresented indigenous populations of Nepal. A total of 311 individuals (53.3% women, 46.7% men) with mean age 43±15 years from 12 indigenous Nepali communities residing in rural (47.9%) or semi-urban (52.1%) areas volunteered to participate in this study. Univariate tests and multivariable logistic regressions were used to analyze the survey data. The mean systolic and diastolic blood pressures were 121.3±19.5 mmHg and 81.3±11.8 mmHg respectively. Overall, the prevalence of obesity and tachycardia was low (0.64% and 3.22%, respectively) but hypertension was prevalent at 23.8%. Hypertension was not significantly different across populations, but it was associated with age, BMI, and tobacco use, and collectively, these variables explained 13.9% variation in hypertension prevalence. Although we were unable to detect direct associations between individual determinants of hypertension identified in non-indigenous Nepalis, such as education levels, alcohol consumption, and smoking in this study, having one or more determinants increased the odds of hypertension in the indigenous participants. Furthermore, ~14% of the hypertensive individuals had none of the universally identified hypertension risk factors. The lack of association between previously identified risk factors for hypertension in these individuals indicates that the additional determinants of hypertension remain to be identified in indigenous Nepali populations.

A multi-country non-inferiority cluster randomized trial of frontloaded smear microscopy for the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis.

BACKGROUND: More than 50 million people around the world are investigated for tuberculosis using sputum smear microscopy annually. This process requires repeated visits and patients often drop out. METHODS AND FINDINGS: This clinical trial of adults with cough ≥2 wk duration (in Ethiopia, Nepal, Nigeria, and Yemen) compared the sensitivity/specificity of two sputum samples collected "on the spot" during the first visit plus one sputum sample collected the following morning (spot-spot-morning [SSM]) versus the standard spot-morning-spot (SMS) scheme. Analyses were per protocol analysis (PPA) and intention to treat (ITT). A sub-analysis compared just the first two smears of each scheme, spot-spot and spot-morning. In total, 6,627 patients (3,052 SSM/3,575 SMS) were enrolled; 6,466 had culture and 1,526 were culture-positive. The sensitivity of SSM (ITT, 70.2%, 95% CI 66.5%-73.9%) was non-inferior to the sensitivity of SMS (PPA, 65.9%, 95% CI 62.3%-69.5%). Similarly, the specificity of SSM (ITT, 96.9%, 95% CI 93.2%-99.9%) was non-inferior to the specificity of SMS (ITT, 97.6%, 95% CI 94.0%-99.9%). The sensitivity of spot-spot (ITT, 63.6%, 95% CI 59.7%-67.5%) was also non-inferior to spot-morning (ITT, 64.8%, 95% CI 61.3%-68.3%), as the difference was within the selected -5% non-inferiority limit (difference ITT = 1.4%, 95% CI -3.7% to 6.6%). Patients screened using the SSM scheme were more likely to provide the first two specimens than patients screened with the SMS scheme (98% versus 94.2%, p<0.01). The PPA and ITT analysis resulted in similar results. CONCLUSIONS: The sensitivity and specificity of SSM are non-inferior to those of SMS, with a higher proportion of patients submitting specimens. The scheme identifies most smear-positive patients on the first day of consultation. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN53339491. Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary.

LED fluorescence microscopy for the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis: a multi-country cross-sectional evaluation.

BACKGROUND: The diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB) in resource-limited settings relies on Ziehl-Neelsen (ZN) smear microscopy. LED fluorescence microscopy (LED-FM) has many potential advantages over ZN smear microscopy, but requires evaluation in the field. The aim of this study was to assess the sensitivity/specificity of LED-FM for the diagnosis of pulmonary TB and whether its performance varies with the timing of specimen collection. METHODS AND FINDINGS: Adults with cough ≥2 wk were enrolled consecutively in Ethiopia, Nepal, Nigeria, and Yemen. Sputum specimens were examined by ZN smear microscopy and LED-FM and compared with culture as the reference standard. Specimens were collected using a spot-morning-spot (SMS) or spot-spot-morning (SSM) scheme to explore whether the collection of the first two smears at the health care facility (i.e., "on the spot") the first day of consultation followed by a morning sample the next day (SSM) would identify similar numbers of smear-positive patients as smears collected via the SMS scheme (i.e., one on-the-spot-smear the first day, followed by a morning specimen collected at home and a second on-the-spot sample the second day). In total, 529 (21.6%) culture-positive and 1,826 (74.6%) culture-negative patients were enrolled, of which 1,156 (49%) submitted SSM specimens and 1,199 (51%) submitted SMS specimens. Single LED-FM smears had higher sensitivity but lower specificity than single ZN smears. Using two LED-FM or two ZN smears per patient was 72.8% (385/529, 95% CI 68.8%-76.5%) and 65.8% (348/529, 95% CI 61.6%-69.8%) sensitive (p<0.001) and 90.9% (1,660/1,826, 95% CI 89.5%-92.2%) and 98% (1,790/1,826, 95% CI 97.3%-98.6%) specific (p<0.001). Using three LED-FM or three ZN smears per patient was 77% (408/529, 95% CI 73.3%-80.6%) and 70.5% (373/529, 95% CI 66.4%-74.4%, p<0.001) sensitive and 88.1% (95% CI 86.5%-89.6%) and 96.5% (95% CI 96.8%-98.2%, p<0.001) specific. The sensitivity/specificity of ZN smear microscopy and LED-FM did not vary between SMS and SSM. CONCLUSIONS: LED-FM had higher sensitivity but, in this study, lower specificity than ZN smear microscopy for diagnosis of pulmonary TB. Performance was independent of the scheme used for collecting specimens. The introduction of LED-FM needs to be accompanied by appropriate training, quality management, and monitoring of performance in the field. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN53339491. Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary.

Scrub Typhus and Molecular Characterization of Orientia tsutsugamushi from Central Nepal.

Scrub typhus is a vector-borne, acute febrile illness caused by Orientia tsutsugamushi. Scrub typhus continues to be an important but neglected tropical disease in Nepal. Information on this pathogen in Nepal is limited to serological surveys with little information available on molecular methods to detect O. tsutsugamushi. Limited information exists on the genetic diversity of this pathogen. A total of 282 blood samples were obtained from patients with suspected scrub typhus from central Nepal and 84 (30%) were positive for O. tsutsugamushi by 16S rRNA qPCR. Positive samples were further subjected to 56 kDa and 47 kDa molecular typing and molecularly compared to other O. tsutsugamushi strains. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that Nepalese O. tsutsugamushi strains largely cluster together and cluster away from other O. tsutsugamushi strains from Asia and elsewhere. One exception was the sample of Nepal_1, with its partial 56 kDa sequence clustering more closely with non-Nepalese O. tsutsugamushi 56 kDa sequences, potentially indicating that homologous recombination may influence the genetic diversity of strains in this region. Knowledge on the circulating strains in Nepal is important to the development of diagnostic tests and vaccines to support public health measures to control scrub typhus in this country.

Carbapenem Resistance in Non-Fermentative Gram-Negative Bacilli Isolated from Intensive Care Unit Patients of a Referral Hospital.

BACKGROUND: Non-fermentative Gram-negative bacilli or non-fermenters are opportunistic pathogens associated with serious infections in intensive care unit patients. Although carbapenems were considered as a backbone of treatment for life-threatening infections, these bacteria are increasingly acquiring resistance to carbapenems. Carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are prioritized as critical pathogens by the World Health Organization. The objective of the study was to document the status of carbapenem-resistant and carbapenemase-producing non-fermenters isolated from intensive care unit patients. METHODS: This study was conducted at Tribhuvan University Teaching Hospital, Kathmandu, Nepal. The clinical specimens collected from intensive care unit patients were processed for isolation and identification of non-fermenters and antibiotic susceptibility profile of bacterial isolates was determined. The multidrug-resistant isolates were identified and carbapenemase enzyme was detected in the carbapenem-resistant isolates. RESULTS: A total of 157 non-fermenters were isolated from 1063 samples which included Acinetobacter species (n=85), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (n=55), Burkholderia cepacia complex (n=15), and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia (n=2). Carbapenem resistance was reported in 85.9%, 72.7%, and 33.3% of Acinetobacter species, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Burkholderia cepacia complex, respectively. Among total non-fermenters, 91.1% isolates were multidrug-resistant and 60.8% carbapenem-resistant isolates were carbapenemase producers. The carbapenem-resistant isolates demonstrated an extremely high degree of resistance than carbapenem-susceptible isolates towards other antimicrobial classes. CONCLUSIONS: This study reported high rates of carbapenem-resistant, carbapenemase-producing, and multidrug-resistant non-fermenters isolates. Therefore, preventing the spread of these superbugs among the critically ill patients in intensive care units should be a major initiative in hospitals.

Biofilm Formation by Pathogens Causing Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia at Intensive Care Units in a Tertiary Care Hospital: An Armor for Refuge.

BACKGROUND: Emerging threat of drug resistance among pathogens causing ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) has resulted in higher hospital costs, longer hospital stays, and increased hospital mortality. Biofilms in the endotracheal tube of ventilated patients act as protective shield from host immunity. They induce chronic and recurrent infections that defy common antibiotics. This study intended to determine the biofilm produced by pathogens causing VAP and their relation with drug resistance. METHODS: Bronchoalveolar lavage and deep tracheal aspirates (n = 70) were obtained from the patients mechanically ventilated for more than 48 hours in the intensive care units of Tribhuvan University Teaching Hospital, Kathmandu, and processed according to the protocol of the American Society for Microbiology (ASM). Antibiotic susceptibility testing was done following Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) 2017 guidelines. Biofilm formation was determined using the microtiter plate method described by Christensen and modified by Stepanovoic et al. RESULTS: Significant microbial growth was seen in 78.6% of the total samples with 52.7% monomicrobial, 45.5% polymicrobial, and 1.8% fungal infection. Among the 71 isolates obtained, bulk was gram-negative (n = 64, 90.1%). Pseudomonas aeruginosa (31.0%) was the predominant isolate followed by Acinetobacter calcoaceticus baumannii complex (16.9%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (16.9%), Citrobacter freundii (15.5%), Staphylococcus aureus (7.0%), Escherichia coli (5.6%), Citrobacter koseri (2.8%), Enterococcus faecalis (1.4%), Burkholderia cepacia complex (1.4%), and Candida albicans (1.4%). Of the total isolates, 56.3% were biofilm producers. Multidrug-resistant (MDR) organisms, extended-spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL), and metallo-ß-lactamase (MBL) producers were preeminent among the biofilm producers. The highest producer of biofilm was P. aeruginosa (19.7%). Among gram-negative biofilm producers, 42.2% were MDR, 21.9% were ESBL producers, and 7.8% were MBL producers. CONCLUSION: Gram-negative nonfermenter bacteria account for the bulk of nosocomial pneumonia. MDR, ESBL, and MBL production was preponderant among the biofilm producers. The rampant spread of drug resistance among biofilm producers is summoning novel interventions to combat multidrug resistance.

Molecular epidemiology of rotavirus diarrhea among children aged <5 years in nepal: predominance of emergent G12 strains during 2 years.

A 2-year surveillance was performed in Kathmandu, Nepal, by collection of stool specimens from 1139 children aged <5 years who were hospitalized for acute diarrhea from November 2005 through October 2007. Of the 1139 samples, 379 (33%) had rotavirus strains identified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; the most prevalent G type was G12, accounting for 50% of typed strains in 2005-2006 and 29% in 2006-2007, followed by G1 (26%) in 2005-2006 and by G9 (28%) and G2 (20%) in 2006-2007. The most prevalent P type was P[8], accounting for 47% of strains in 2005-2006 and 35% in 2006-2007, followed by P[6] (37% in 2005-2006 and 33% in 2006-2007) and P[4] (10% in 2005-2006 and 24% in 2006-2007). Of combined genotypes, G12P[6] was the most prevalent, accounting for 34% of strains in 2005-2006 and 24% in 2006-2007, followed by G1P[8] (23%) in 2005-2006 and G2P[4] (20%) in 2006-2007. An unusually high detection of G12 strains underscores the importance of continued surveillance of rotavirus strains.

Assessing the effect of climate factors on childhood diarrhoea burden in Kathmandu, Nepal.

INTRODUCTION: This study was undertaken to assess the effect of climate variability on diarrhoeal disease burden among children under 5 years of age living in Kathmandu, Nepal. The researchers sought to predict future risk of childhood diarrhoea under different climate change scenarios to advance the evidence base available to public health decision-makers, and the Nepalese infection control division, in planning for climate impacts. METHODS: A time series study was conducted using the monthly case count of diarrhoeal disease (2003-2013) among children under 5 years of age living in Kathmandu, Nepal. A quasi Poisson generalised linear equation with distributed lag linear model was fitted to estimate the lagged effect of monthly maximum temperature and rainfall on childhood diarrhoea. The environmental framework of comparative risk assessment was used to assess the environmental burden of diarrhoea within this population. RESULTS: A total of 219,774 cases of diarrhoeal disease were recorded during the study period with a median value of 1286 cases per month. The results of a regression model revealed that the monthly count of diarrhoea cases increased by 8.1% (RR: 1.081; 95% CI: 1.02-1.14) per 1 °C increase in maximum temperature above the monthly average recorded within that month. Similarly, rainfall was found to have significant effect on the monthly diarrhoea count, with a 0.9% (RR; 1.009; 95% CI: 1.004-1.015) increase in cases for every 10 mm increase in rainfall above the monthly cumulative value recorded within that month. It was estimated that 7.5% (95% CI: 2.2%-12.5%) of the current burden of diarrhoea among children under 5 years of age could be attributed to climatic factors (maximum temperature), and projected that 1357 (UI: 410-2274) additional cases of childhood diarrhoea could be climate attributable by the year 2050 under low-risk scenario (0.9 °C increase in maximum temperature). CONCLUSION: It is estimated that there exists a significant association (p < 0.05) between childhood diarrhoea and an increase in maximum temperature and rainfall in Kathmandu, Nepal. The findings of this study may inform the conceptualization and design of early warning systems for the prediction and control of childhood diarrhoea, based upon the observed pattern of climate change in Kathmandu.