The long arm of rejection sensitivity and young adults' romantic relationships: An extension and a replication.

INTRODUCTION: In an earlier study, we followed adolescents from age 16 to 23, examining the effect of rejection sensitivity (RS) on the quality of future romantic relationships. Findings showed that RS decreased over time, and the decrease associated with a higher quality of future romantic relationships. In contrast, the effect of the earlier level of RS on the quality of future romantic relationships was minor. METHODS: Extending the earlier study, these 101 Israeli young adults (69 females, mean age = 22.79) were followed again from age 23 to 28. At age 28, the level of RS was assessed again. In addition, participants reported about the quality of their current or most recent romantic relationship. RESULTS: Contrary to the earlier study, findings of the current study show that the earlier higher level of RS at age 23 was associated with a higher likelihood of maintaining distance and self concealing from one's partner, feeling less certain, and reporting greater tension in future relationships. In contrast, the effect of change in RS between ages 23 and 28 on future relationships was minimal. CONCLUSIONS: Integrating the findings of the current and earlier studies underscores the role of earlier RS and its change over time during different developmental periods. RS decreases during the transition from adolescence to adulthood, and this decrease associates with a future higher quality of romantic relationships. In contrast, during the latter 20s RS stabilizes, and therefore, its earlier level associates with future romantic outcomes.

Smoking behavior and symptoms of depression and anxiety among young adult backpackers: Results from a short longitudinal study.

Levels of smoking and smoking initiation have been found to increase during the transition to adulthood. Symptoms of depression and anxiety may both precede or follow smoking behavior, yet there is equivocal evidence regarding the direction of this relationship. The aim of the current study was to examine the direction of this relationship in a group of young adult backpackers who traveled to social environments which are permissive of smoking. The current study involved a quasi-experimental design examining 199 (52% men, mean age 24.27, SD = 1.05 years at time 1) young adults, before, during and following a backpacking experience of at least six months. Regression analyses was used to examine the association between smoking and symptoms of depression and anxiety over time. Relative to smoking levels before the journey, a significant transient increase in smoking was found during the journey. The increase in smoking during the journey predicted increases in both depressive and anxiety symptoms following the journey. The reverse direction models were not significant. Our study suggests that social contexts which are permissive of smoking, such as backpacking, increase young adult smoking behavior. Mood symptoms did not contribute to the observed increase in smoking behavior but, inversely, increases in smoking contributed to heightened mood symptoms. Additional longitudinal studies are needed to explore the role that smoking behavior plays in young adults' mental health.

[Is sexual activity during adolescence good for future romantic relationships?] / Sind sexuelle Aktivitäten in der Adoleszenz für zukünftige Partnerbeziehungen gut?

Is sexual activity during adolescence good for future romantic relationships? Objectives: The study examines the effects of different forms of sexual activity at the age of 16 on sexuality and the quality of romantic relationships at the age of 23. Methods: In a multimodal longitudinal study (diaries, questionnaires), 144 16-year-old adolescents (59.7 % female) reported on their sexual activities and their relationship status. At the age of 23, they reported on their romantic and sexual experiences in the past two years and the quality of their current romantic relationship. Regressions analyzed the predictive power of adolescent predictors for future sexuality and relationship quality. Results: For men and women, frequent non-committed sexual activities at the age of 16 consistently predicted a higher probability of participating in different patterns of non-committed sexual encounters and short relationship duration at the age of 23 years. Adolescents who were more satisfied in their romantic relationships had more stable, longer-lasting partner relationships at young adulthood. Discussion: The special role that non-committed sexual activities compared to sexual activities within a romantic relationship play in future sexual and romantic activities became clear. Parental influences were negligible.

The role of change in self-criticism across young adulthood in explaining developmental outcomes and psychological wellbeing.

OBJECTIVE: Past research has confirmed the role of self-criticism in numerous forms of psychopathology and negative interpersonal outcomes. However, the majority of these studies were cross-sectional and have not addressed the role of possible changes in self-criticism across time for future outcomes. The current study investigated the degree to which changes in self-criticism during young adulthood precede better psychological outcomes beyond the contribution of their baseline levels. METHOD: A total of 168 Israeli emerging adults were followed for 12 years. Participants completed assessments of self-criticism at age 23, 24, 26.5, and 29, and of developmental tasks and psychological adaptation at age 35. Analyses assessed the extent to which the intercept and linear slope of self-criticism were associated with assessments of coping with age-related tasks and psychological well-being at age 35. RESULTS: Findings indicated that decreases in self-criticism between the ages of 23 and 29 were associated with better coping with age-related task outcomes and psychological health at age 35. CONCLUSIONS: These findings are among the first to show that decreases in self-criticism serve as important precursors of coping with age-related tasks and psychological outcomes and point to the positive contributions of changes in personality attributes for future development.

Patterns of Romantic Pathways among 23 Year Olds and their Adolescent Antecedents.

Observation of the romantic lives of the majority of young people shows that they might move between transitory and inconsistent states, being in and out of a relationship. The present study aims to better understand the meaning of these fluctuations. For this purpose, and employing a multi-method design, 144 Israeli adolescents (59.7% females) were followed from age 16 to 23. At age 23 in-depth interviews were conducted with the participants, focusing on their romantic histories. Analyses of interviews at age 23 yielded four distinctive romantic pathways differing in stability and the ability to progress toward intimacy: Sporadic and Casual Encounters, Sporadic Encounters in Response to a Stressful Romantic Experience, Steady Non-Intimate Involvements, and Progression toward Steady Intimate Involvements. The findings showed that more than half of participants belonged to the Progression toward Steady Intimate Involvements pathway, suggesting that romantic fluctuations served as means to progress toward intimate involvements. Progression toward steady intimate involvement was explained by greater secure attachment, greater capacity to face tension and to express one's views, and greater parental support measured seven years earlier. In contrast, lower earlier intra- and interpersonal assets during adolescence were more likely to associate with a variety of romantic experiences during emerging adulthood that are characterized by romantic instabilities and difficulty to progress toward intimacy. The findings are discussed within the framework of the Developmental Systems Theory.

Adolescent psychopathology in Times of Change: The need for integrating a developmental psychopathology perspective.

In addition to the major physical, sexual and cognitive changes, as well as changes in relationships with parents and peers, in recent years adolescents also have to cope with many technological changes and increasing societal instabilities. Most of the existing research has examined the extent to which increasing uncertainties might impact expression of psychopathology and its magnitude. Emerging from a developmental psychopathology perspective, we are looking first for a better understanding of the meaning that adolescents give to these changes, which in turn is likely to affect their behavior. We are also looking for better understanding the importance of the role parents, and other societal systems/institutions (such as peers) play in ameliorating or enhancing the likelihood of maladaptive adolescent behavior under these circumstances.

Predicting post-breakup distress and growth in emerging adulthood: The roles of relationship satisfaction and emotion regulation.

With a sample of emerging adults (N = 110; 72% female) this brief report utilized self-report measures to examine the role of relationship satisfaction and emotion regulation strategies assessed at age 20 in predicting breakup distress and posttraumatic growth three years later. Results showed that higher relationship satisfaction is associated with less future breakup distress. Emotion regulation explained the ways individuals cope with distress; cognitive appraisal (in contrast to emotional suppression) predicted higher growth after experiencing a breakup. Findings highlight the ways emotion regulation strategies can help emerging adults cope with relational stressors such as breakups.

Changes in rejection sensitivity across adolescence and emerging adulthood: Associations with relationship involvement, quality, and coping.

Using a sample of 110 Israeli youth (72% female), the present study investigates associations between initial levels of rejection sensitivity as well as changes in rejection sensitivity from age 16 to age 23 and relationship involvement, quality, and (growth following) coping with relationship stress. Results showed that rejection sensitivity generally decreased over time into the transition to adulthood. Furthermore, levels of rejection sensitivity at age 16 predicted whether young people were romantically involved by age 23, as well as the quality of their relationships. Yet, the change in level of rejection sensitivity over time explained far more the quality of later romantic relationships and competence in coping with relationship stress than the initial level of rejection sensitivity. These findings have important implications for examining the role of changes in personality attributes such as rejection sensitivity in the transition from adolescence to adulthood.

Is Sexual Activity During Adolescence Good for Future Romantic Relationships?

Past research has consistently shown that romantic experiences during adolescence affect the nature and quality of romantic relationships during emerging adulthood. However, less is known about the role of adolescent sexual experiences in future sexual and romantic relationships. The current study examined the impact of different forms of sexual activity at age 16 (within a romantic relationship or casual encounters) on the nature and quality of sexual experiences in romantic relationships at age 23. One hundred and forty four (59.7% females) 16 year olds reported on their sexual activity within a romantic relationship or sexual encounters. In addition they reported on the quality of relationships they were involved in and their tendency to suppress emotions (included as an aspect of personality). At age 23 they reported on their romantic and sexual experiences during the past 2 years (number of short lived relationships, numbers of friends with benefits, casual sex encounters) and the quality of their romantic relationships (the duration of their longest relationship, partner support and feelings of certainty in the relationships). Findings showed that the tendency to suppress emotions was associated with lower likelihood to engage in casual sex at age 23. However, greater sexual experience in casual encounters during adolescence was consistently longitudinally associated with different forms of casual sexual encounters and short romantic involvements above and beyond the contribution of personality. In contrast, sexual activity within a romantic relationship predicted only a few indices of the quality of romantic involvement at age 23. The distinctive role of casual sexual activity and sexual activity within a romantic relationship for future sexual and romantic activities is discussed.

The role of romantic attraction and conflict resolution in predicting shorter and longer relationship maintenance among adolescents.

This study examined the role of romantic attraction and conflict resolution patterns in shorter and longer relationship maintenance among adolescent couples. Data were used from 55 couples aged 15-18 years. Partners completed the Romantic Attraction scale and were observed negotiating a disagreement. Three and 6 months later, they were asked to report whether they were still together. Findings indicated that partners' romantic attraction and the tendency to minimize disagreements during interaction predicted shorter relationship maintenance. In contrast, longer relationship maintenance was predicted by partners' capability to resolve conflicts constructively in a positive atmosphere. Findings are embedded and discussed within Fisher's (2004) evolutionary theory of love.

Typologies and precursors of career adaptability patterns among emerging adults: a seven-year longitudinal study.

The present study examined career adaptability in 100 Israeli emerging adults who were followed from ages 22 to 29. Participants were given an in depth interview and were asked to talk about their current work, difficulties they might have had in the past and how they coped with them. In addition they were asked to elaborate on the extent to which their job fits their interests and is meaningful to them. Analyses of interviews yielded three distinctive career adaptability patterns that were associated with different levels of concurrent wellbeing: Integrated, Compromised, and Vague. A lower level of identified motivation measured seven years earlier predicted membership in the Compromised pattern. A higher level of extrinsic motivation combined with decreased parental support predicted membership in the Vague pattern. Findings are discussed within the framework of the occupational adaptations and compromises that young people must make when approaching the age of 30.

The Role of Personality Risk and Protective Factors in Living with Covid-19: A Longitudinal Study.

Earlier research has shown the significant role of personality in serving as risk or protective factors in psychological wellbeing. However, it is less clear the extent to which personality plays in coping with the Covid-19 pandemic. The aim of the current study was to examine the role of a personality risk factors such as self-criticism, and personality strengths such as efficacy and intrinsic motivation representing resilience in predicting psychological outcomes in response to the Covid-19 pandemic. As part of a broader longitudinal study, personality measures were assessed at ages 23 and 29, and Covid-19-related outcomes were measured at age 41 on a subsample of 83 Israeli participants, who were approached after the first lockdown that was implemented (April 2020). Findings showed that self-criticism measured at age 23 anticipated greater Covid-19-related distress and lower satisfaction at age 41. Decrease in self-criticism from age 23 to 29, which indicates developmental progress toward maturity, explained lower non-adaptive emotional reactions at age 41- lower distress and lower anxiety. In addition, a higher level of intrinsic motivation at age 29 explained a greater likelihood to expect post pandemic growth. Findings highlight the role of personality in addressing unexpected stressful events such as the current Covid-19 pandemic.

Adolescent daughters' romantic competence: the role of divorce, quality of parenting, and maternal romantic history.

This study examined the links between parental divorce, quality of maternal parenting, spousal relationships and middle adolescent romantic competence in 80 mother-adolescent daughter pairs (40 divorced). Mothers were asked to describe their attitudes and behaviors with regard to their daughters' romantic behavior. In addition, mothers were interviewed about their own romantic experiences when they were at the age of their daughters. Adolescent girls (mean age = 16.98 years; range 16-18) were administered a comprehensive interview about romantic competence. Findings indicated that adolescent girls from divorced families showed lower levels of romantic competence, which were expressed in their behavior, attitudes toward relationships and skill in handling those relationships. Divorce was found to have had an adverse effect on girls' romantic competence, whereas continued adaptive parenting and spousal relationships alleviated the effect of divorce. Mothers' coherent representation of their own adolescent romantic experiences also alleviated the effect of divorce on daughters' romantic behavior. Results show the important role of family relationships in fostering romantic competence among adolescent girls.

Assessing romantic competence among older adolescents.

Davila and colleagues (Davila et al., 2009) developed the Romantic Competence Interview to capture the potential for romantic competence during early adolescence. Considering that at later stages of adolescence the majority are likely to be involved in some kind of romantic relationship, the current paper adapts, extends, and examines the concept of romantic competence among older adolescents. Seventy two Israeli adolescent girls (mean age 17.17 years) were given a revised version of the RCI along with measures of quality of relationship with romantic partners and parents, and quality of parental marital satisfaction. Mothers were also interviewed and were asked to talk about their attitudes toward daughters' romantic behavior. Results showed that RCI scales were reliably coded and exhibited good construct validity. The meaning and expression of romantic competence among older adolescents is conceptualized and discussed within the framework of developmental and agency perspectives.

Understanding emerging adulthood from a goal-setting perspective.

The chapter first introduces the concept of emerging adulthood as a period of life that is characterized by instabilities and fluctuations. Then, the role of goal setting and aspirations in individual development during this stage of life is discussed. Following this, seven chapters of the present special issue are introduced, and the ways in which goal processes affect individual trajectories and outcomes are discussed. The chapter concludes with a discussion of future perspectives in the field, such as the need to investigate the relationships between goals and goal adjustment, the need to carry out cross-cultural comparisons, as well as the need to develop intervention based on goal and aspiration framework.

Dynamics of goal pursuit and personality make-up among emerging adults: typology, change over time, and adaptation.

In recent years young people's lives have been characterized by postponement of developmental timetables, inconsistencies of transitions, and loss of direction in life. Data from a longitudinal study of Israeli young adults show that the capacity for setting realistic work and love goals reflects inner strengths and is associated with adaptive outcomes. Less-articulated love and work goals are associated with underlying personality difficulties and are predictive of less stable and less adaptive outcomes. The interplay of goal constellations and personality constructs, and its association with adaptive and less adaptive outcomes is presented and discussed.

Adolescents' Sexual Encounters With Either Romantic or Casual Partners and the Quality of Their Romantic Relationships Four Years Later.

Adolescent sexual behavior was examined within a health perspective. Assuming a developmental perspective, the current study investigated the associations between sexual behavior in either stable relationships or in casual encounters, and the quality of romantic relationships and affect 4 years later. Data were collected from 144 Israeli adolescents aged 16-18 years (mean age 16.57 years). Participants completed diary data over a period of 10 days and reported on the quality of their romantic encounters and their emotions, and on their sexual behavior in stable relationships or casual encounters. Four years later, they were asked to complete diary data again for 10 consecutive days and report on the quality of their romantic relationships and their positive and negative affect. Findings indicate that involvement in sexual behavior in stable romantic relationships was associated only with future romantic partner support. In contrast, earlier involvement in casual sexual behavior was associated with a number of future indices: lower partner support, greater negative affect as well as greater relationship tension, and dyadic hurtful behavior 4 years later. The differential role of sexuality within a stable relationship or casual encounters among adolescents for their future romantic development is discussed within a developmental framework.

Romantic outcomes in young adulthood: The role of dependency, parental support, and reflective functioning.

In recent years, an increasing number of young adults have difficulties making a smooth transition to adulthood in becoming romantically committed and balancing romantic commitments and other aspects of life. The present study was conducted on a sample of 100 Israeli emerging adults (54 males) who were followed from age 23 to 34 years. The study examined the role of personality attributes (dependency, self-criticism), parental support, and reflectivity concerning own family of origin in making a smoother transition to mature romantic engagement. Greater achievement of romantic goals and greater mastery in balancing family and work demands were predicted by low dependency or low self-criticism (assessed at age 23) and a high level of reflectivity (assessed at age 29). The distinctive role of reflectivity with regard to own family script and personality attributes for a smoother romantic transition in adulthood is discussed. In addition, the possible implications of the findings for intervention are also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Adolescent Intimacy Revisited.

Two studies examined intimacy in adolescent friendships. In the first, 7th-, 9th-, and 11th-grade students completed a questionnaire assessing perceived friendship intimacy. Age and sex differences were identified in emotional closeness, self-disclosure, emphasis on individuality, control, and conformity. Across ages, emphasis on individuality increased, whereas control and conformity declined. There were no age differences in emotional closeness and self-disclosure. Females reported more emotional closeness and self-disclosure than males. In the second study, individual differences in friendship intimacy were examined in a sample of 9th-grade adolescents. A joint problem solving task identified interdependent and disengaged friends. Perceived intimacy among interdependent and disengaged friends was contrasted with that in a control group of subjects without friends. Adolescents with friends reported more closeness than those without friends. Interdependent friends reported greater levels of respect for individuality than disengaged friends. The results underscore the salience of intimacy for peer relationships during the adolescent years and suggest that intimacy may be an important construct distinguishing between different types of close friendships.

Directly observed interaction within adolescent romantic relationships: What have we learned?

Review and conceptual analysis of the papers in this special issue calls attention to several important methodological and conceptual issues surrounding the direct observation of adolescent romantic couples. It also provides an important new foundation of knowledge about the nature of adolescents' romantic relationships. Connections with previous family relationships, new understandings of the distinctive nature of adolescent romantic relationships, and gender issues are clarified by this body of papers. Together, these papers move the scholarly field forward and generate new lines of questions for future investigators.