The importance of confirmatory assays in testing blood donors for human T-cell lymphotropic virus.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Serological HTLV-1/2 screening is mandatory for blood donor candidates in Brazil. Our objective was to analyse HTLV test results in blood donors submitted for screening and confirmatory assays in a Brazilian blood bank. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Retrospective analysis (2017-2022) results of chemiluminescence immunoassays and confirmatory tests for HTLV-1/2 in reactive donors were performed. During the analysed period, three sets of assays were used: (1) Architect rHTLV-I/II + HTLV Blot 2.4 (Western blot [WB]); (2) Alinity s HTLV I/II Reagent Kit + INNO-line immunoassay (LIA) HTLV I/II Score (LIA); (3) Alinity + WB. RESULTS: The analysed period comprised a total of 1,557,333 donations. The mean percentage of HTLV reactive donors using the Architect assay was 0.14%. With the change to the Alinity assay, that percentage dropped 2.3-fold (0.06%). The reactivity rate in the confirmatory tests (1064 samples) ranged from 13.5% to 30.2%, whereas 58.3%-85.9% of samples were non-reactive. The highest rates of positive (30.2%) and indeterminate (11.5%) results were seen using LIA. Considering all analysed samples, those with signal/cut-off ratio (S/CO) >50 were positive in confirmatory tests (positive predictive value, PPV = 100%), whereas samples with S/CO ≤6 are very unlikely to be truly positive (PPV = 0). CONCLUSION: The use of the Alinity assay reduced the frequency of false-positive results. Confirmatory tests are important to identify true HTLV infection in blood donors, because more than 58% of initially reactive individuals are confirmed as seronegative. Categorizing S/CO values is useful for assessing the likelihood of true HTLV-1/2 infection.

SARS-CoV-2 IgG Seroprevalence among Blood Donors as a Monitor of the COVID-19 Epidemic, Brazil.

During epidemics, data from different sources can provide information on varying aspects of the epidemic process. Serology-based epidemiologic surveys could be used to compose a consistent epidemic scenario. We assessed the seroprevalence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) IgG in serum samples collected from 7,837 blood donors in 7 cities of Brazil during March-December 2020. Based on our results, we propose a modification in a compartmental model that uses reported number of SARS-CoV-2 cases and serology results from blood donors as inputs and delivers estimates of hidden variables, such as daily values of SARS-CoV-2 transmission rates and cumulative incidence rate of reported and unreported SARS-CoV-2 cases. We concluded that the information about cumulative incidence of a disease in a city's population can be obtained by testing serum samples collected from blood donors. Our proposed method also can be extended to surveillance of other infectious diseases.

Decline in human T-cell lymphotropic virus seroprevalence in blood donors from Minas Gerais, Brazil over a 12-year period (2006-2017).

To investigate a 12-year historical series (2006-2017) of human T-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV)-positive blood donations from Fundação Hemominas, Minas Gerais, Brazil, an observational retrospective study was performed to evaluate data of blood donor candidates who were screened for HTLV-1/2 by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or chemiluminescence assays and confirmed by Western blot. We analyzed 3 309 716 blood donations covering 2006-2017 that were extracted from the institutional database. In a total of 3 308 738 donations that have complete algorithm tests, the global frequency of HTLV-positive donations was 0.012%. The seroprevalence in first-time blood donors was 28.82/100 000 donors; 0.95/100 000 donations were HTLV-positive in repeat blood donors. The frequency of HTLV-seropositive females was significantly higher than males (odds ratio = 1.85, p < 0.001) in first-time donors. The median age of HTLV-positive first-time and repeat donors was similar (36 and 32 years, respectively). First-time donors ≥41 years had higher odds to be infected. There was a clear tendency of decline in the HTLV-positive donations in the period analyzed, going from 19.26/100 000 donations to 8.50/100 000 donations. The increase in the proportion of repeat donors over the period analyzed (from 23% in 2006 to 67% in 2017) must be the principal factor that contributed to this drop. Our results showed a continuous decline in the frequency of HTLV-positive donations from Minas Gerais, Brazil throughout 12 years and emphasize the importance of having a high rate of repeat donors in blood centers to reduce the residual risk of transfusion-transmitted infections.

Pro-inflammatory immune profile mediated by TNF and IFN-γ and regulated by IL-10 is associated to IgG anti-SARS-CoV-2 in asymptomatic blood donors.

The SARS-CoV-2 virus has infected and killed millions of people, but little is known about the risk factors that lead to the development of severe, mild or asymptomatic conditions after infection. The individual immune response and the balance of cytokines and chemokines have been shown to be important for the prognosis of patients. Additionally, it is essential to understand how the production of specific antibodies with viral neutralizing capacity is established. In this context, this study aimed to identify positive individuals for IgG anti-SARS-CoV-2 in a large population of blood donors (n = 7837) to establish their immune response profile and to evaluate its viral neutralization capacity. The prevalence found for IgG anti-SARS-CoV-2 was 5.6% (n = 441), with male blood donors (61.9%) being more prevalent among the positive ones. The results showed that positive individuals for IgG anti-SARS-CoV-2 have high serum concentrations of chemokines, TNF, IFN-γ and IL-10. The analyses showed that the positivity index for IgG anti-SARS-CoV-2 is associated with the neutralizing capacity of the antibodies, which, in turn, is significantly related to lower serum concentrations of CCL5 and CXCL10. The results allow us to hypothesize that the development and maintenance of IgG anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in infected individuals occurs in a pro-inflammatory microenvironment well regulated by IL-10 with great capacity for recruiting cells from the innate and adaptive immune systems.

Impact of COVID-19 on the efficacy of meeting the transfusion demand by a Brazilian blood banks network.

One of the effects of the pandemic in the hemotherapy services was the reduction in the attendance of blood donors and production of blood components. It is relevant to investigate how the capacity to meet the demand for blood components was affected, especially in blood centers located in the regions most affected by the pandemic, such as Brazil. This study aimed to describe the impact of the pandemic on the capacity to meet the demand for different types of blood components by a Brazilian blood center in 2020, compared to the historical series of 2016-2019 and to discuss the measures adopted to mitigate the effects of the pandemic. Retrospective cross-sectional study was carried out with comparative analysis of the blood components requested and attended in the period from 2016 to 2020. Data analysis was performed by Graphpad Prism 5. The spread of COVID-19 cases since March 2020 had impact on the blood components production and transfusions. The reduction in the production of blood components was observed prior to the restriction measures, in March 2020. In comparison to 2016-2019, there was a reduction in the number of transfusions performed in all months of 2020. The results suggest that the measures adopted in a Brazilian blood center to face the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in reasonable regularity in the supply of blood components. The sharing of experiences between blood banks in different regions, social and epidemiological contexts can contribute to the improvement of strategies to reduce the impact of COVID-19 in transfusion medicine.

Analysis of current SARS-CoV-2 infection in a large population of blood donors evidenced that RNAemia is rare in plasma.

BACKGROUND: Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 by asymptomatic individuals and by blood transfusion are important issues to understand to control the viral spread. In this work, we estimated the current SARS-CoV-2 infection rate in blood donors from Belo Horizonte, Brazil. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: Saliva and blood samples were collected from 4103 blood donors from June 15 to September 30, 2020. Saliva samples were tested by real-time RT-PCR for SARS-CoV-2 in mini-pools of four samples. Individual samples were tested for positive or inconclusive pools, and positive donors had their plasma tested. RESULTS: Twenty-seven (0.66%) blood donors were positive for SARS-CoV-2 in their saliva, but their plasma was negative, except for one, who presented a high viral load in saliva and nasopharyngeal samples and RNAemia in the plasma close to the limit of detection. Fourteen (56%) positive blood donors reported mild symptoms related to COVID-19 after donation, but the viral load levels were not statistically different between symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals. DISCUSSION: Despite the measures taken by Blood Centers to avoid blood donors with SARS-CoV-2 infection, asymptomatic or presymptomatic carriers are able to donate. The risk of the virus transmission by transfusion seems to be negligible since plasma RNAemia was seen at a very low level in only one (3.7%) of the positive donors, but other studies must be performed to confirm this finding.

Impact of COVID-19 in the attendance of blood donors and production on a Brazilian Blood Centres.

BACKGROUND: One of the effects of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is the risk of shortages in Blood Centres. OBJECTIVES: To verify the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the blood donor's attendance and production of blood components in Fundação Hemominas, a Brazilian public institution was formed by several Blood Centres. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was carried out from January to June 2020. Data collected were compared to a historical series from 2016 to 2019. RESULTS: The study showed a reduction in the attendance of blood donors, whole blood collections and blood component production from March 2020, when the first case of COVID-19 was notified in Minas Gerais, Brazil. The results evidenced that Hemominas Blood Centres were affected in a very distinct way by the pandemic with a general mean reduction around 17% in attendance of blood donors and in production of blood components in the period of March to June. On the other hand, the return of blood donors rate increased. CONCLUSION: The reduction in blood donation during the pandemic period was significant, despite the measures adopted. Still, the recruitment of return donors appears to be an important measure to be considered to decrease the pandemic's effect on blood stocks.

The screening of rare blood donors in a highly admixed population: A new approach for Holley and Diego genotyping and impact of genomic and self-reported ancestry.

OBJECTIVES: The present study aimed to develop strategies for genotyping DO*HY (Dombrock system) and DI*A/DI*B (Diego system) alleles and to evaluate the impact of genomic and self-declared ancestry on rare donor screening in admixed populations. BACKGROUND: The antigens Hy and Dib demonstrate clinical importance. The lack of antisera for the serological evaluation of these antigens makes it necessary to develop molecular methods. In addition, considering that some rare red blood cell phenotypes present differences in frequency between ethnic groups, it is important to assess the applicability of self-declared ancestry in the search for rare donors in admixed populations. METHODS: DO*HY and DI*A/DI*B genotyping based on real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was standardised. A total of 457 blood donors clustered by self-defined skin colour/race categories were genotyped. Furthermore, individual genomic ancestry was used in the analyses. RESULTS: The assays developed are reproducible and provide satisfactory results even at low concentrations of DNA, which make them useful in situations where the DNA is scarce, such as dried blood spots on filter paper, or when screening for pooled samples. No significant difference was observed in the frequencies of the DI*A, DI*B and DO*HY, comparing the self-declared White (branco) donors with those who are Black (preto) and Brown (pardo). CONCLUSION: Real-time PCR, especially using pooled samples, is a promising strategy to screen rare blood donors. Although both self-reported race/colour and some blood group phenotypes are associated with ancestry, the results point to a greater complexity in the application of self-declared race/colour in the screening of rare donors in admixed populations.

Human Platelet Antigens in Brazilian Multiethnic Populations: Occurrence of Regional Variation and Frequency in a Large Urban Center (Belo Horizonte).

BACKGROUND: The frequency of human platelet antigens (HPA) varies according to ethnicity, which causes differences in the morbidity of alloimmune and autoimmune thrombocytopenic disorders in different populations. Studies on HPA frequencies in Brazil have reported differences among Brazilian populations produced by the diverse degrees of admixture throughout the country. METHODS: In the present study, we investigated the variation of HPA distribution in Brazil, compared with worldwide populations, and describe the frequencies of HPA-1, -2, -3, -5, and -15 in a large urban center in Southern Brazil (Belo Horizonte) based on a sample of blood donors. RESULTS: The principal component analysis and the dendrogram based on genetic distance revealed a clear relationship between Brazilian populations and the groups formed by European and African populations. The coefficients of variation for HPA allele frequencies suggest that Brazilian populations presented variations for HPA alleles comparable with the populations from continental groups. In Belo Horizonte, the allele a frequencies for HPA-1, -2, -3, -5 and -15 were 0.8575, 0.8400, 0.6225, 0.8525 and 0.5825 respectively. The genotypes with higher frequencies were a/a (72-74%), except for HPA-3 and -15, whose heterozygous a/b genotypes were shown to be more prevalent (43.5 and 44.5%, respectively). CONCLUSION: We confirmed the heterogeneity of HPA antigens in Brazilian populations, reinforcing the importance of HPA panels composed of regional blood donors, or a national panel that contemplates the specificities of the different regions of the country, in order to provide support in platelet transfusions and to minimize the risks associated with HPA alloimmunization. The evaluation of HPA data from Belo Horizonte represents the initial step toward the development of a genotyped platelet donor registry in order to treat HPA alloimmunized patients in this region.

Duffy blood group system: New genotyping method and distribution in a Brazilian extra-Amazonian population.

Duffy blood group system is of interest in several fields of science including transfusion medicine, immunology and malariology. Although some methods have been developed for Duffy polymorphism genotyping, not all of them have been sufficiently described and validated, and all present limitations. At the same time, the frequency of Duffy alleles and antigens in some densely populated regions of the world are still missing. In this study we present new tests for genotyping the major alleles of the Duffy blood system and describe Duffy alleles and antigens in blood donors and transfusion-dependent patients in Minas Gerais, Brazil. A simple and reproducible strategy was devised for Duffy genotyping based on real-time PCR that included SNPs rs12075 and rs2814778. No significant differences between the allele frequencies were observed comparing blood donors and patients. Among the blood donors, the phenotype Fy(a-b+) was the most common and the Fy(a-b-) phenotype, associated with populations of African descent, was remarkably less common among subjects who self-identified as black in comparison to other ethnoracial categories. However, the African ancestry estimated by molecular markers was significantly higher in individuals with the allele associated to the Duffy null phenotype. The genotyping method presented may be useful to study Duffy genotypes accurately in different contexts and populations. The results suggest a reduced risk of alloimmunization for Duffy antigens and increased susceptibility for malaria in Minas Gerais, considering the high frequency of Duffy-positive individuals.

Plasmatic proinflammatory chemokines levels are tricky markers to monitoring HTLV-1 carriers.

The human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is present throughout the world and is associated with HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP) and other inflammatory conditions. The pathogenesis of HAM/TSP involves a chronic inflammatory response in central nervous system (CNS), with the presence of HTLV-1 infected cells and HTLV-1-specific CD8+ lymphocytes. Chemokines may have a role in the infiltration of these cells into the CNS. In this context, the present study analyzed the level of plasmatic chemokines CCL2 (MCP-1), CCL5 (RANTES), IL8 (CXCL8), CXCL9 (MIG), and CXCL10 (IP-10) and HTLV-1 proviral load from peripheral blood in 162 asymptomatic carriers and 136 HAM/TSP patients to determine the differences that be associated with the clinical status of the HTLV-1 infection. The results showed that patients with HAM/TSP have significantly higher levels of IL8 and CXCL9, and that the level of IL8, CXCL9 and CXCL10 was significantly greater in HTLV-1 infected individuals with high (>1%) than those with low proviral load (<1%). However, the levels of the chemokines tested have not showed high sensitivity to discriminate HAM/TSP patients from asymptomatic carriers. In addition, chemokine profiles in asymptomatic carriers and HAM/TSP groups were similar, with no significant increased frequency of higher producers of chemokines in HAM/TSP individuals. Results indicate that the heterogeneity of the individuals in the groups regarding time of infection, duration of disease, proviral load level and other possible confound factors may impair the use of chemokines levels to monitor HTLV-1 carriers in clinical practice. J. Med. Virol. 88:1438-1447, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Next Generation Sequencing of Red Blood Cell Antigens in Transfusion Medicine: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Molecular analysis of blood groups is important in transfusion medicine, allowing the prediction of red blood cell (RBC) antigens. Many blood banks use single nucleotide variant (SNV) based methods for blood group analysis. While this is a well-established approach, it is limited to the polymorphisms included in genotyping panels. Thus, variants that alter antigenic expression may be ignored, resulting in incorrect prediction of phenotypes. The popularization of next-generation sequencing (NGS) has led to its application in transfusion medicine, including for RBC antigens determination. The present review/meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the applicability of the NGS for the prediction of RBC antigens. A systematic review was conducted following a comprehensive literature search in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis guidelines. Studies were selected based on predefined criteria and evaluated using Strengthening the Reporting of Observational studies in Epidemiology guidelines. The characteristics and results of the studies were extracted and meta-analysis was performed to verify the agreement between results from standard molecular methods and NGS. Kell (rs8176058), Duffy (rs2814778, rs12078), or Kidd (rs1085396) alleles were selected as a model for comparisons. Additionally, results are presented for other blood group systems. Of the 864 eligible studies identified, 10 met the inclusion criteria and were selected for meta-analysis. The pooled concordance proportion for NGS compared to other methods ranged from 0.982 to 0.994. The sequencing depth coverage was identified as crucial parameters for the reliability of the results. Some studies reported difficulty in analyzing more complex systems, such as Rh and MNS, requiring the adoption of specific strategies. NGS is a technology capable of predicting blood group phenotypes and has many strengths such as the possibility of simultaneously analyzing hundred individuals and gene regions, and the ability to provide comprehensive genetic analysis, which is useful in the description of new alleles and a better understanding of the genetic basis of blood groups. The implementation of NGS in the routine of blood banks depends on several factors such as cost reduction, the availability of widely validated panels, the establishment of clear quality parameters and access to bioinformatics analysis tools that are easy to access and operate.

A potent inflammatory response is triggered in asymptomatic blood donors with recent SARS-CoV-2 infection.

BACKGROUND: The inflammatory response plays a significant role in the outcome of coronavirus disease (COVID-19). METHODS: We investigated plasma cytokine and chemokine concentrations in non-infected (NI), asymptomatic severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2)-infected blood donors (AS), and patients with severe COVID-19 (SC). RESULTS: The SC group showed significantly higher levels of interleukin 6 (IL-6), IL-10, and CCL5 than the AS and NI groups. The SC and AS groups had considerably greater CXCL9 and CXCL10 concentrations than the NI group. Only NI and infected people showed separate clusters in the principal component analysis. CONCLUSIONS: SC, as well as AS was characterized by an inflammatory profile.

The Duffy null genotype is associated with a lower level of CCL2, leukocytes and neutrophil count but not with the clinical outcome of HTLV-1 infection.

Purpose. Chemokines are important in the immune response against viral infections, and may play a role in human T-lymphotropic virus 1 (HTLV-1)-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP) pathogenesis. Polymorphisms in the Duffy antigen receptor for chemokines (DARC), such as rs12075 (A>G; FY*B>FY*A) and rs281477 (-46T>C; GATA-1 box) may influence circulating concentrations of proinflammatory chemokines. We investigate whether Duffy genotypes influence the HTLV-1 proviral load (PVL) level, HTLV-1 infection outcome and chemokine concentrations in HTLV-1 asymptomatic carriers (AC=162), HAM/TSP patients (HAM=135) and seronegative individuals (SN=71).Methodology. Quantification of plasmatic IL8, CCL2 and CCL5 were performed by flow cytometry and Duffy genotypes were investigated by real-time PCR. HTLV-1 PVL was quantified in peripheral blood. To control for spurious association, individual ancestry profiles in AC and HAM groups were investigated.Results/Key findings. PVL and IL8 level were significantly higher in the HAM group than in the AC group, but were not associated with Duffy genotypes. The highest CCL2 and CCL5 levels were seen in the SN group, and there was no difference when comparing the infected groups. The level of CCL5 was not associated with Duffy genotypes. The polymorphism -46 C/C that abrogates the DARC expression on the erythrocytes was significantly associated with lower levels of CCL2, neutrophil and white blood cell (WBC) counts in HTLV-1-infected individuals.Conclusion. We conclude that although the Duffy null genotype was associated with leukopenia, neutropenia and lower levels of CCL2, the data do not suggest the influence of Duffy genotypes on the neurologic outcome of HTLV-1 infection, but may be a confounding factor in comparison HTLV-1-infected populations with different ancestries, especially when defining inflammatory biomarkers.

A potent inflammatory response is triggered in asymptomatic blood donors with recent SARS-CoV-2 infection

ABSTRACT Background: The inflammatory response plays a significant role in the outcome of coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Methods: We investigated plasma cytokine and chemokine concentrations in non-infected (NI), asymptomatic severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2)-infected blood donors (AS), and patients with severe COVID-19 (SC). Results: The SC group showed significantly higher levels of interleukin 6 (IL-6), IL-10, and CCL5 than the AS and NI groups. The SC and AS groups had considerably greater CXCL9 and CXCL10 concentrations than the NI group. Only NI and infected people showed separate clusters in the principal component analysis. Conclusions: SC, as well as AS was characterized by an inflammatory profile.

Impact of a confirmatory RhD test on the correct serologic typing of blood donors.

BACKGROUND: The RHD gene is highly polymorphic, which results in a large number of RhD variant phenotypes. Discrepancies in RhD typing are still a problem in blood banks and increase the risk of alloimmunization. In this study, the RhD typing strategy at a blood bank in Brazil was evaluated. METHODS: One-hundred and fifty-two samples typed as RhD negative and C or E positive by routine tests (automated system and indirect antiglobulin test using the tube technique) were reevaluated for RhD status by three methods. The method with the best performance was implemented and evaluated for a period of one year (n=4897 samples). Samples that were D positive exclusively in the confirmatory test were submitted to molecular analysis. RESULTS: The gel test for indirect antiglobulin testing with anti-D immunoglobulin G (clone ESD1) presented the best results. Seventy samples (1.43%) previously typed as RhD negative showed reactivity in the gel test for indirect antiglobulin testing and were reclassified as D positive. D variants that may cause alloimmunization, such as weak D type 2 and partial D(VI), were detected. CONCLUSION: The confirmatory RhD test using the gel test for indirect antiglobulin testing represents a breakthrough in transfusion safety in this blood center. Our results emphasize the importance of assessing the blood group typing strategy in blood banks.