Behavioral and genetic color vision evaluation of an albino male capuchin monkey (Sapajus apella).

Albinism is a rare phenotype that affects the pigmentation in eyes, hair, and skin. The effects of albinism in color vision are still unclear. Our study aimed to evaluate the color vision phenotype and genotype of an albino capuchin monkey. An adult albino male capuchin monkey (Sapajus apella) had the L and M opsin gene analyzed, and was trained in a behavioral task of color discrimination. Color discrimination thresholds were determined along 20 chromatic axes around the background chromaticity. A color discrimination ellipse was drawn by interpolation among these thresholds. The albino monkey's behavioral color discrimination ellipse showed poor discrimination along the red-green axis indicating a deutan phenotype. Genetic analysis revealed only the presence of the L gene in the albino monkey. This result did not differ from that obtained with ten previously tested non-albino monkeys. Behavioral and molecular analyses agreed that the albino capuchin monkey had color vision similar to that of non-albino dichromat monkeys, suggesting no influence of albinism on color discrimination.

Temporal evolution of exposure to mercury in riverside communities in the Tapajós basin, from 1994 to 2010.

Our objective was to evaluate the temporal evolution of mercury exposure in two riverside communities, Barreiras and São Luiz do Tapajós, downstream of gold mining areas in the Tapajós basin, Brazilian Amazon. The quantification of mercury in hair sample was made by atomic absorption spectrophotometry in the period between 1994 and 2010. In São Luiz do Tapajós the mercury exposure varied, in log units, from the peak of 1.21 ± 0.03 µg/g in 1996 to 1.16 ± 0.07 µg/g in 2007. Mercury exposure in Barreiras varied, in log units, from 1.25 ± 0.04 µg/g in 1994 to 1 ± 0.03 µg/g in 2010, peaking in 1995 at 1.25 ± 0.06 µg/g. Total mercury concentration found in both communities had no statistical differences across the years (p > 0.05) and they were higher than non-mercury exposed communities in Brazil and in South America. We concluded that the mercury exposure in the Tapajós basin is more than regulatory levels or higher than the general population.

Retinal disorders in northern Brazilian patients treated with chloroquine assessed by multifocal ERG.

The effects of chloroquine intake on the retinal function in a Brazilian population of patients were assessed by multifocal electroretinography. Twenty-four randomly chosen eyes of patients treated with chloroquine for rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus were examined using multifocal electroretinography (mfERG). Control measurements were acquired from 21 randomly chosen eyes of age-matched healthy subjects. None of the study participants had an inherited retinal disease or a Snellen visual acuity reduced to less than 20/40. In patients and control subjects, cumulative chloroquine dose, total daily dose, duration of treatment, retinal examination, visual field defects, visual acuity, and the mfERG were assessed. The average amplitudes and implicit times of the N1, P1, and P2 components of the mfERGs were measured in the central hexagon (R1) and in five rings (R2-R6). The values measured in patients and normal subjects were compared. The P1 amplitudes in R2 were significantly decreased in the patients. In addition, the amplitudes of N1 and N2 in R1 were significantly smaller in the patients. The implicit times of none of the components were significantly different between patients and controls. The response amplitude was not significantly correlated with cumulative dose and duration of intake. There was no correlation with retinal appearance, visual field, and visual acuity. In agreement with earlier data, the central mfERG amplitudes were decreased in chloroquine patients indicating functional alterations in the retina. These changes are also present in a Brazilian population suggesting that the effects of chloroquine are general and that genetic background and life circumstances probably have, if at all, only little effect.

Cone contrast influence on components of the pattern onset/offset VECP.

Transient visual evoked cortical potentials (VECP) were recorded from the scalp of healthy normal trichromats (n = 12). VECPs were elicited by onset/offset presentation of patterned stimuli of two kinds: isochromatic luminance-modulated, and equiluminant red-green modulated, sine wave gratings. The amplitude and latency of the major onset components of the onset/offset VECP were measured and plotted as a function of the logarithm of pooled cone contrast. The early onset components, achromatic C1 and chromatic N1, increase linearly with log contrast, but N1 has a higher contrast gain than C1. The late onset components, achromatic C2 and chromatic N2, have similar contrast gain, and similar response as a function of contrast level: both increase in the low-to-medium range of contrasts and saturate at high contrast levels. In the range of pooled cone contrast tested, C1 and N1 show similar latencies, whilst C2 shows shorter latencies than N2. We suggest that C1 and N1 are generated by the same visual mechanism with high red-green contrast gain and low luminance contrast gain, whilst C2 and N2 are generated by different visual mechanisms.

Twelve chromatically opponent ganglion cell types in turtle retina.

The turtle retina has been extensively used for the study of chromatic processing mechanisms. Color opponency has been previously investigated with trichromatic paradigms, but behavioral studies show that the turtle has an ultraviolet (UV) channel and a tetrachromatic visual system. Our laboratory has been working in the characterization of neuronal responses in the retina of vertebrates using stimuli in the UV-visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum. In the present investigation, we recorded color-opponent responses from turtle amacrine and ganglion cells to UV and visible stimuli and extended our previous results that UV color-opponency is present at the level of the inner nuclear layer. We recorded from 181 neurons, 36 of which were spectrally opponent. Among these, there were 10 amacrine (5%), and 26 ganglion cells (15%). Morphological identification of color-opponent neurons was possible for two ganglion cell classes (G17 and G22) and two amacrine cell classes (A22 and A23b). There was a variety of cell response types and a potential for complex processing of chromatic stimuli, with intensity- and wavelength-dependent response components. Ten types of color opponency were found in ganglion cells and by adding previous results from our laboratory, 12 types of opponent responses have been found. The majority of the ganglion cells were R+UVBG- and RG+UVB-color-opponents but there were other less frequent types of chromatic opponency. This study confirms the participation of a UV channel in the processing of color opponency in the turtle inner retina and shows that the turtle visual system has the retinal mechanisms to allow many possible chromatic combinations.

Mercury pollution and childhood in Amazon riverside villages.

Mercury is a hazardous metal responsible for environmental contamination and human intoxication. Methylmercury, a very toxic organic compound, bio-accumulates through food chain, and is responsible for chronic mercury exposure of riverside Amazonian communities with a diet rich in fish. Uncertainties about the reference exposure dose that could have damaging consequences for nervous system development makes necessary the biomonitoring of these Amazonian populations, especially children. In this work, a comparative study was performed in exposed and non-exposed children living in the Amazon. A total of 168 children were analyzed to find possible correlations between gender, age, location, and hair mercury content. For each location, no statistically significant differences (P<0.05) were detected for gender and age versus mercury content. However, mean mercury levels in hair samples may indicate a tendency of boys to average higher hair concentrations. Also, in the community with highest levels of mercury, the limit of 10 micro g/g of mercury was surpassed by 65% of 2-6 years and 50% of 7-12 years children but only by 27% of 0-1 year babies, pointing to a lower bioaccumulation and/or the existence of a protection mechanism in babies. Log normal distributions of mercury concentrations for each location showed that children from populations under influence of gold mining activity contain the highest mercury levels in hair samples, though this intoxication may have decreased when compared to previous studies. Knowledge originated by this monitoring will better assist in the development of prevention strategies and government actions targeting the mercury contamination of Amazonian environment.

Mercury toxicity in the Amazon: contrast sensitivity and color discrimination of subjects exposed to mercury.

We measured visual performance in achromatic and chromatic spatial tasks of mercury-exposed subjects and compared the results with norms obtained from healthy individuals of similar age. Data were obtained for a group of 28 mercury-exposed subjects, comprising 20 Amazonian gold miners, 2 inhabitants of Amazonian riverside communities, and 6 laboratory technicians, who asked for medical care. Statistical norms were generated by testing healthy control subjects divided into three age groups. The performance of a substantial proportion of the mercury-exposed subjects was below the norms in all of these tasks. Eleven of 20 subjects (55%) performed below the norms in the achromatic contrast sensitivity task. The mercury-exposed subjects also had lower red-green contrast sensitivity deficits at all tested spatial frequencies (9/11 subjects; 81%). Three gold miners and 1 riverine (4/19 subjects, 21%) performed worse than normal subjects making more mistakes in the color arrangement test. Five of 10 subjects tested (50%), comprising 2 gold miners, 2 technicians, and 1 riverine, performed worse than normal in the color discrimination test, having areas of one or more MacAdam ellipse larger than normal subjects and high color discrimination thresholds at least in one color locus. These data indicate that psychophysical assessment can be used to quantify the degree of visual impairment of mercury-exposed subjects. They also suggest that some spatial tests such as the measurement of red-green chromatic contrast are sufficiently sensitive to detect visual dysfunction caused by mercury toxicity.

Comparative study of human exposure to mercury in riverside communities in the Amazon region.

Four populations in the Amazon area were selected for a comparative study of mercury-exposed and non-exposed populations: São Luiz do Tapajós, Barreiras, Panacauera, and Pindobal Grande. The highest mercury levels in human hair samples were found in São Luiz do Tapajós and Barreiras, greatly exceeding the limits established by the World Health Organization. Panacauera showed an intermediate level below 9 microg/g. This was the first comparative and simultaneous evaluation of mercury exposure in the Amazon area. Also, thanks to this type of monitoring, we were able to eliminate the uncertainties about the reference dose. On the basis of these data, we can conclude that the mercury levels detected in exposed populations of the Tapajós River basin may be dangerous not only because they are above the World Health Organization limits, but also because the simultaneous mercury detection in non-exposed populations with similar characteristics provided a valid control and revealed lower mercury levels. Our results support the importance of continuous monitoring in both exposed and non-exposed populations.

Density, proportion, and dendritic coverage of retinal ganglion cells of the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus jacchus).

We performed a quantitative analysis of M and P cell mosaics of the common-marmoset retina. Ganglion cells were labeled retrogradely from optic nerve deposits of Biocytin. The labeling was visualized using horseradish peroxidase (HRP) histochemistry and 3-3'diaminobenzidine as chromogen. M and P cells were morphologically similar to those found in Old- and New-World primates. Measurements were performed on well-stained cells from 4 retinas of different animals. We analyzed separate mosaics for inner and outer M and P cells at increasing distances from the fovea (2.5-9 mm of eccentricity) to estimate cell density, proportion, and dendritic coverage. M cell density decreased towards the retinal periphery in all quadrants. M cell density was higher in the nasal quadrant than in other retinal regions at similar eccentricities, reaching about 740 cells/mm(2) at 2.5 mm of temporal eccentricity, and representing 8-14% of all ganglion cells. P cell density increased from peripheral to more central regions, reaching about 5540 cells/mm(2) at 2.5 mm of temporal eccentricity. P cells represented a smaller proportion of all ganglion cells in the nasal quadrant than in other quadrants, and their numbers increased towards central retinal regions. The M cell coverage factor ranged from 5 to 12 and the P cell coverage factor ranged from 1 to 3 in the nasal quadrant and from 5 to 12 in the other quadrants. These results show that central and peripheral retinal regions differ in terms of cell class proportions and dendritic coverage, and their properties do not result from simply scaling down cell density. Therefore, differences in functional properties between central and peripheral vision should take these distinct regional retinal characteristics into account.

Mercury and selenium concentrations in hair samples of women in fertile age from Amazon riverside communities.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate mercury and selenium concentrations in hair samples of reproductive age women from riverside communities of the Tapajós River basin. We studied 19 pregnant and 21 non-pregnant women, 13 to 45 years old, living in the region for at least 2 years, and having a diet rich in fish. The analysis of Se and total Hg were performed in the Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares (IPEN, São Paulo, Brazil) by using a Varian AA220-FS atomic absorption spectrometer with a flow injection system. There were no differences between the two groups - pregnant and non-pregnant -- concerning age (23.80 +/- 6.92 and 26.60 +/- 9.60 years old, respectively) and residential time (20.21 +/- 8.30 and 22.20 +/- 10.90 years, respectively). The geometric means and ranges for total Hg concentration were similar (p > 0.05): 8.25 microg/g (1.51-19.43) in pregnant and 9.39 microg/g (5.25-21.00) in non-pregnant women, respectively. Total Hg concentrations were also similar in different gestational stages. However, there was a significant difference between the two groups (p < 0.05, Student t test) in relation to Se concentration: 0.61 microg/g (0.40-2.33) in pregnant and 2.46 microg/g (0.92-5.74) in non-pregnant women, respectively. We concluded that Hg exposure levels in reproductive age women were only slightly higher than a provisional tolerable weekly intake of MeHg would provide, that Hg concentration in maternal hair samples was independent of gestational age, and that low Se concentration in pregnant women indicates high mineral consumption by fetal organism to satisfy their metabolic requirements raised during pregnancy, including as a protective mechanism for Hg cytotoxic effects.

Colour vision and contrast sensitivity losses of mercury intoxicated industry workers in Brazil.

We evaluated vision loss in workers from fluorescent lamp industries (n=39) who had retired due to intoxication with mercury vapour and had been away from the work situation for several years (mean=6.32 years). An age-matched control group was submitted to the same tests for comparison. The luminance contrast sensitivity (CSF) was measured psychophysically and with the sweep visual evoked potential (sVEP) method. Chromatic red-green and blue-yellow CSFs were measured psychophysically. Colour discrimination was assessed with the Farnsworth-Munsell 100-hue test, Lanthony D-15d test and Cambridge Colour Vision Test. Patient data showed significantly lower scores in all colour tests compared to controls (p<.001). The behavioural luminance CSF of the patients was lower than that of controls (p<.001 at all frequencies tested). This result was confirmed by the electrophysiologically measured sweep VEP luminance CSF except at the highest frequencies-a difference that might be related to stimulus differences in the two situations. Chromatic CSFs were also statistically significantly lower for the patients than for the controls, for both chromatic equiluminant stimuli: red-green (p<.005) and blue-yellow (p<.04 for all frequencies, except 2 cycles per degree (cpd), the highest spatial frequency tested) spatial gratings. We conclude that exposure to elemental mercury vapour is associated with profound and lasting losses in achromatic and chromatic visual functions, affecting the magno-, parvo- and koniocellular visual pathways.

Topography and architecture of visual and somatosensory areas of the agouti.

We analyzed the organization of the somatosensory and visual cortices of the agouti, a diurnal rodent with a relatively big brain, using a combination of multiunit microelectrode recordings and histological techniques including myelin and cytochrome oxidase staining. We found multiple representations of the sensory periphery in the parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. While the agouti's primary (V1) and secondary visual areas seemed to lack any obvious modular arrangement, such as blobs or stripes, which are found in some primates and carnivores, the primary somatosensory area (S1) was internally subdivided in discrete regions, isomorphically associated with peripheral structures. Our results confirm and extend previous reports on this species, and provide additional data to understand how variations in lifestyle can influence brain organization in rodents.

Chromatic spatial contrast sensitivity estimated by visual evoked cortical potential and psychophysics.

The purpose of the present study was to measure contrast sensitivity to equiluminant gratings using steady-state visual evoked cortical potential (ssVECP) and psychophysics. Six healthy volunteers were evaluated with ssVECPs and psychophysics. The visual stimuli were red-green or blue-yellow horizontal sinusoidal gratings, 5° × 5°, 34.3 cd/m2 mean luminance, presented at 6 Hz. Eight spatial frequencies from 0.2 to 8 cpd were used, each presented at 8 contrast levels. Contrast threshold was obtained by extrapolating second harmonic amplitude values to zero. Psychophysical contrast thresholds were measured using stimuli at 6 Hz and static presentation. Contrast sensitivity was calculated as the inverse function of the pooled cone contrast threshold. ssVECP and both psychophysical contrast sensitivity functions (CSFs) were low-pass functions for red-green gratings. For electrophysiology, the highest contrast sensitivity values were found at 0.4 cpd (1.95 ± 0.15). ssVECP CSF was similar to dynamic psychophysical CSF, while static CSF had higher values ranging from 0.4 to 6 cpd (P < 0.05, ANOVA). Blue-yellow chromatic functions showed no specific tuning shape; however, at high spatial frequencies the evoked potentials showed higher contrast sensitivity than the psychophysical methods (P < 0.05, ANOVA). Evoked potentials can be used reliably to evaluate chromatic red-green CSFs in agreement with psychophysical thresholds, mainly if the same temporal properties are applied to the stimulus. For blue-yellow CSF, correlation between electrophysiology and psychophysics was poor at high spatial frequency, possibly due to a greater effect of chromatic aberration on this kind of stimulus.

Dendritic structure varies as a function of eccentricity in V1: a quantitative study of NADPH diaphorase neurons in the diurnal South American rodent agouti, Dasyprocta prymnolopha.

The cerebral cortex is often described as a composite of repeated units or columns, integrating the same basic circuit. The 'ice-cube' model of cortical organization, and 'canonical' circuit, born from insights into functional architecture, still require systematic comparative data. Here we probed the anatomy of an individual neuronal type within V1 to determine whether or not its dendritic trees are consistent with the 'ice-cube' model and theories of canonical circuits. In a previous report we studied the morphometric variability of NADPH-diaphorase (NADPH-d) neurons in the rat auditory, visual and somatosensory primary cortical areas. Our results suggested that the nitrergic cortical circuitry of primary sensory areas are differentially specialized, probably reflecting peculiarities of both habit and behavior of the species. In the present report we specifically quantified the dendritic trees of NADPH-d type I neurons as a function of eccentricity within V1. Individual neurons were reconstructed in 3D, and the size, branching and space-filling of their dendritic trees were correlated with their location within the visuotopic map. We found that NADPH-d neurons became progressively smaller and less branched with progression from the central visual representation to the intermediate and peripheral visual representation. This finding suggests that aspects of cortical circuitry may vary across the cortical mantle to a greater extent that envisaged as natural variation among columns in the 'ice-cube' model. The systematic variation in neuronal structure as a function of eccentricity warrants further investigation to probe the general applicability of columnar models of cortical organization and canonical circuits.

Comparison of the reliability of multifocal visual evoked cortical potentials generated by pattern reversal and pattern pulse stimulation.

This study compared the effectiveness of the multifocal visual evoked cortical potentials (mfVEP) elicited by pattern pulse stimulation with that of pattern reversal in producing reliable responses (signal-to-noise ratio >1.359). Participants were 14 healthy subjects. Visual stimulation was obtained using a 60-sector dartboard display consisting of 6 concentric rings presented in either pulse or reversal mode. Each sector, consisting of 16 checks at 99% Michelson contrast and 80 cd/m² mean luminance, was controlled by a binary m-sequence in the time domain. The signal-to-noise ratio was generally larger in the pattern reversal than in the pattern pulse mode. The number of reliable responses was similar in the central sectors for the two stimulation modes. At the periphery, pattern reversal showed a larger number of reliable responses. Pattern pulse stimuli performed similarly to pattern reversal stimuli to generate reliable waveforms in R1 and R2. The advantage of using both protocols to study mfVEP responses is their complementarity: in some patients, reliable waveforms in specific sectors may be obtained with only one of the two methods. The joint analysis of pattern reversal and pattern pulse stimuli increased the rate of reliability for central sectors by 7.14% in R1, 5.35% in R2, 4.76% in R3, 3.57% in R4, 2.97% in R5, and 1.78% in R6. From R1 to R4 the reliability to generate mfVEPs was above 70% when using both protocols. Thus, for a very high reliability and thorough examination of visual performance, it is recommended to use both stimulation protocols.

Chromatic spatial contrast sensitivity estimated by visual evoked cortical potential and psychophysics

The purpose of the present study was to measure contrast sensitivity to equiluminant gratings using steady-state visual evoked cortical potential (ssVECP) and psychophysics. Six healthy volunteers were evaluated with ssVECPs and psychophysics. The visual stimuli were red-green or blue-yellow horizontal sinusoidal gratings, 5° × 5°, 34.3 cd/m2 mean luminance, presented at 6 Hz. Eight spatial frequencies from 0.2 to 8 cpd were used, each presented at 8 contrast levels. Contrast threshold was obtained by extrapolating second harmonic amplitude values to zero. Psychophysical contrast thresholds were measured using stimuli at 6 Hz and static presentation. Contrast sensitivity was calculated as the inverse function of the pooled cone contrast threshold. ssVECP and both psychophysical contrast sensitivity functions (CSFs) were low-pass functions for red-green gratings. For electrophysiology, the highest contrast sensitivity values were found at 0.4 cpd (1.95 ± 0.15). ssVECP CSF was similar to dynamic psychophysical CSF, while static CSF had higher values ranging from 0.4 to 6 cpd (P < 0.05, ANOVA). Blue-yellow chromatic functions showed no specific tuning shape; however, at high spatial frequencies the evoked potentials showed higher contrast sensitivity than the psychophysical methods (P < 0.05, ANOVA). Evoked potentials can be used reliably to evaluate chromatic red-green CSFs in agreement with psychophysical thresholds, mainly if the same temporal properties are applied to the stimulus. For blue-yellow CSF, correlation between electrophysiology and psychophysics was poor at high spatial frequency, possibly due to a greater effect of chromatic aberration on this kind of stimulus.

Mercury exposure and antioxidant defenses in women: a comparative study in the Amazon.

Mercury is a hazardous metal that has become an important issue of environmental contamination in Amazon areas. Human intoxication by mercury causes sensory deficits, motor dysfunction, delayed psychomotor development, genotoxicity, and several other health problems. One of the major cellular mechanisms of mercury toxicity is the oxidative stress which may lead to membrane peroxidation and generation of reactive oxygen species. The antioxidant defense, which includes scavenger compounds such as glutathione and antioxidant enzymes such as catalase, might prevent these injuries to occur. Thus, the objective of this work was to evaluate hair mercury levels and the strength of antioxidant defenses, evaluated by glutathione levels and catalase activity in the blood of exposed and non-exposed women living in Amazon populations. For each location, no statistically significant difference (P<0.05) was detected for age versus mercury content. However, women from populations under the influence of gold mining activity exhibit high mercury levels in hair samples, above the tolerance limit accepted by the World Health Organization. In addition, a significant correlation was found between high mercury content, high glutathione level, and lower catalase activity. These data suggest that chronic mercury intoxication may deplete antioxidant enzymatic activity, which can be used as an important peripheral marker. Knowledge originated by this monitoring will better assist the development of preventive strategies and governmental actions against the problem of mercury contamination.

Spatial receptive field properties of lateral geniculate cells in the owl monkey (Aotus azarae) at different contrasts: a comparative study.

Several physiological properties of owl monkey lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) cells were studied to verify whether its nocturnal habit has an influence on the organization of its subcortical visual system. Receptive field (RF) dimensions were measured using drifting gratings and bipartite field stimuli. We found that owl monkey cells LGN have larger RFs and were on average more non-linear than those of diurnal monkeys. But, as in other anthropoids, there is an increase in RF centre size with increasing eccentricity, and there is a limited correlation between these centre sizes and retinal ganglion cell dendritic tree sizes. The influence of contrast on sizes and peak sensitivities of RF centres and surrounds and on the response phases was studied. Both the sizes and peak sensitivities of the RF centres and surrounds decrease as contrast increases. As a result, the responses to low spatial frequency stimuli saturate with increasing contrast. Estimates of contrasts at half-maximal responses confirm the presence of saturation. It was found that the magnocellular cells saturate more strongly than parvocellular cells. The response phase increases with increasing contrast. These data resemble those obtained in the common marmoset, indicating that these are basic features of the primate visual system. We conclude that during evolution and as an adaptation to a nocturnal lifestyle, cells in the owl monkey LGN display an increased spatial integration in comparison with diurnal primate species, without a change in the basic organization common to the primate subcortical visual system.

Comparison of the reliability of multifocal visual evoked cortical potentials generated by pattern reversal and pattern pulse stimulation

This study compared the effectiveness of the multifocal visual evoked cortical potentials (mfVEP) elicited by pattern pulse stimulation with that of pattern reversal in producing reliable responses (signal-to-noise ratio >1.359). Participants were 14 healthy subjects. Visual stimulation was obtained using a 60-sector dartboard display consisting of 6 concentric rings presented in either pulse or reversal mode. Each sector, consisting of 16 checks at 99% Michelson contrast and 80 cd/m² mean luminance, was controlled by a binary m-sequence in the time domain. The signal-to-noise ratio was generally larger in the pattern reversal than in the pattern pulse mode. The number of reliable responses was similar in the central sectors for the two stimulation modes. At the periphery, pattern reversal showed a larger number of reliable responses. Pattern pulse stimuli performed similarly to pattern reversal stimuli to generate reliable waveforms in R1 and R2. The advantage of using both protocols to study mfVEP responses is their complementarity: in some patients, reliable waveforms in specific sectors may be obtained with only one of the two methods. The joint analysis of pattern reversal and pattern pulse stimuli increased the rate of reliability for central sectors by 7.14% in R1, 5.35% in R2, 4.76% in R3, 3.57% in R4, 2.97% in R5, and 1.78% in R6. From R1 to R4 the reliability to generate mfVEPs was above 70% when using both protocols. Thus, for a very high reliability and thorough examination of visual performance, it is recommended to use both stimulation protocols.

Horizontal cells in the retina of a diurnal rodent, the agouti ( Dasyprocta aguti ).

The morphology and distribution of normally placed and displaced A horizontal cells were studied in the retina of a diurnal hystricomorph rodent, the agouti Dasyprocta aguti. Cells were labeled with anti-calbindin immunocytochemistry. Dendritic-field size reaches a minimum in the visual streak, of about 9,000 microm(2), and increases toward the retinal periphery both in the dorsal and ventral regions. There is a dorsoventral asymmetry, with dorsal cells being larger than ventral cells at equal distances from the streak. The peak value for cell density of 281 +/- 28 cells/mm(2) occurs in the center of the visual streak, decreasing toward the dorsal and ventral retinal periphery, paralleling the increase in dendritic-field size. Along the visual streak, the decline in cell density is less pronounced, remaining between 100-200 cells/mm(2) in the temporal and nasal periphery. Displaced horizontal cells are rare and occur in the retinal periphery. They tend to be smaller than normally placed horizontal cells in the ventral region, whilst no systematic difference was observed between the two cell groups in the dorsal region. Mosaic regularity was studied using nearest-neighbor analysis and the Ripley function. When mosaic regularity was determined removing the displaced horizontal cells, there was a slight increase in the conformity ratio, but the bivariate Ripley function indicated some repulsive dependence between the two mosaics. Both results were near the level of significance. A similar analysis performed in the capybara retina, a closely related hystricomorph rodent bearing a higher density of displaced horizontal cells than found in the agouti, suggested spatial independence between the two mosaics, normally placed versus displaced horizontal cells.