Early detection of memory impairments in older adults: standardization of a short version of the verbal and nonverbal Recognition Memory Test.

In several neurological conditions, in elderly and cognitively impaired subjects, memory functioning must be evaluated to early detect the cognitive deterioration processes. In particular, recognition memory assessment is an essential step in the clinical and neuropsychological evaluation of early memory impairments. The Recognition Memory Test (RMT) developed by Smirni et al. (G Ital Psicol XXXVII(1):325-343, 2010) is an effective instrument to assess verbal and nonverbal recognition memory in the Italian population. The current study provides a new, brief, and reliable RMT format to evaluate recognition memory on elderly subjects and it reports normative data in an older adult Italian population sample (including 100 participants well distributed across sex, education, and age categories). The shortened version of RMT keeps the administration procedures and materials of the original Italian RMT constant, i.e., words, faces, and buildings. Multiple regression analysis revealed significant effects of age and educational level on performance but no effect of sex. Inferential cutoffs have been determined and equivalent scores computed. The availability of equivalent scores for the Recognition Memory Test will prove useful in the clinical evaluation of patients' memory profiles.

Emotional Awareness and Cognitive Performance in Borderline Intellectual Functioning Young Adolescents.

According to DSM-5 and ICD-10, borderline intellectual functioning (BIF) should not be classified properly as a disorder. However, BIF people may present relevant problems of adaptive functioning in several areas of daily activities, and they seem to be more vulnerable to mental diseases. Young adolescence may be considered a particular period for emotional information processing. The "own and others' emotions" awareness can play a crucial role in many daily life situations, such as decision making, interpersonal relationships, and decoding of facial expressions. On this background, a BIF young adolescents group underwent a neuropsychological assessment including emotional and cognitive domains, and was compared with a healthy young adolescents control group (HC). In the overall sample, a significant negative correlation between general intellectual abilities and emotional awareness was found. The BIF group showed a significantly greater level of alexithymia and a poorer performance in higher cognitive tasks than HC group. As hypothesized, a border cognitive functioning influences mentalization processes as ability to discriminate and monitor emotions, as well as higher domains of cognition.

Benton visual form discrimination test in healthy children: normative data and qualitative analysis.

The attention evaluation may be considered a crucial phase in neuropsychological assessment. It must take into account the systemic nature of the attentional functions and must use different reliable tests in relation to the neurological and attentional problems to be addressed. The aim of the study was to offer the clinician an effective tool for attention assessment and provide the normative data and performance analysis on the Benton Visual Form Discrimination Test on an Italian sample (number 323) of healthy school children, from ages 5 to 11. Performance on Visual Form Discrimination Test (VFDT) significantly increased with growing age. Performances were significantly different when the test was divided into four sets. All groups, especially the younger ones, showed some difficulty in maintenance and sustained attention. The correct answers were significantly more numerous when they were placed at the top quadrants. This effect was more marked in the younger groups. Sex was never a significantly influencing performance. Our data seem to indicate that the higher attentional frontoparietal network becomes more functionally organized around 9-10 years. VFDT appears as a discriminative task. In clinical practice, our normative data can be used both on complex visual attention skill evaluation in children and on the ability to maintain visual attention in time.

Standardization and validation of a parallel form of the verbal and non-verbal recognition memory test in an Italian population sample.

In the neuropsychological assessment of several neurological conditions, recognition memory evaluation is requested. Recognition seems to be more appropriate than recall to study verbal and non-verbal memory, because interferences of psychological and emotional disorders are less relevant in the recognition than they are in recall memory paradigms. In many neurological disorders, longitudinal repeated assessments are needed to monitor the effectiveness of rehabilitation programs or pharmacological treatments on the recovery of memory. In order to contain the practice effect in repeated neuropsychological evaluations, it is necessary the use of parallel forms of the tests. Having two parallel forms of the same test, that kept administration procedures and scoring constant, is a great advantage in both clinical practice, for the monitoring of memory disorder, and in experimental practice, to allow the repeated evaluation of memory on healthy and neurological subjects. First aim of the present study was to provide normative values in an Italian sample (n = 160) for a parallel form of a verbal and non-verbal recognition memory battery. Multiple regression analysis revealed significant effects of age and education on recognition memory performance, whereas sex did not reach a significant probability level. Inferential cutoffs have been determined and equivalent scores computed. Secondly, the study aimed to validate the equivalence of the two parallel forms of the Recognition Memory Test. The correlations analyses between the total scores of the two versions of the test and correlation between the three subtasks revealed that the two forms are parallel and the subtasks are equivalent for difficulty.

Premorbid Personality Traits as Risk Factors for Behavioral Addictions: A Systematic Review of a Vulnerability Hypothesis.

The debate on personality structure and behavioral addictions is an outstanding issue. According to some authors, behavioral addictions could arise from a premorbid personality, while for others, it could result from a pathological use of technological tools. The current study aims to investigate whether, in the latest literature, personality traits have been identified as predictors of behavioral addictions. A literature search was conducted under the PRISMA methodology, considering the most relevant studies of the five-factor model from the past 10 years. Overall, most studies on addiction, personality traits, and personality genetics proved that behavioral addiction may be an epiphenomenon of a pre-existing personality structure, and that it more easily occurs in vulnerable subjects with emotional instability, negative affects, and unsatisfactory relationships with themselves, others, and events. Such neurotic personality structure was common to any addictive behavior, and was the main risk factor for both substance and behavioral addictions. Therefore, in clinical and educational contexts, it becomes crucial to primarily focus on the vulnerability factors, at-risk personality traits, and protective and moderating traits such as extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience; meanwhile, treatment of behavioral addictions is frequently focused on overt pathological behaviors.

Current and Potential Cognitive Development in Healthy Children: A New Approach to Raven Coloured Progressive Matrices.

In clinical practice and research, Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices (RCPMs) continue to be used according to a single procedure that aims to evaluate a single overall score of the current general intelligence level. This study aimed to examine potential cognitive development in a sample of 450 typically developing children, aged from 6 to 10 years, by administering RCPMs according to the standard procedure followed immediately by a standardized interview on incorrect items. In addition, the study aimed to analyze how performance differed across age groups. The results analysis was examined on the basis of three different factors in which the items were grouped in previous factorial studies. The results found that performance improved markedly and significantly after the interview; however, the improvement was not homogeneous in the three factors across age groups or within each age group. The age groups showed a different development potential in relation to the nature of the task: the younger ones showed a greater increase on items requiring figure completion, and the older ones showed a greater increase on analogical reasoning items. Finally, the children who showed the greatest improvement were those with the best performance in standard RCPM administration. The procedure described in the present research could represent a useful tool in clinical practice and in the research for a broader cognitive assessment focused on potential cognitive development, as well as on real cognitive development, and to favor the planning of more adequate rehabilitation and educational treatments.

Anxiety in Older Adolescents at the Time of COVID-19.

Corona Virus Disease-19 (COVID-19) is a catastrophic health risk, with psychological, emotional, social, and relational implications. From the early stages of the virus spread, the elderly population was identified as the most vulnerable, and health authorities have rightly focused on this frailer population. Conversely, less attention was given to the emotional and psychological dimensions of children and adolescents. Moreover, even though they were the subjects whose lives and health were at low risk, they, nevertheless, had to face a reality full of anxiety, fears, and uncertainties. The current study investigated the state of anxiety and emotional awareness in a sample of healthy older adolescents, 84 females and 64 males, aged 17 to 19, during the pandemic lockdown, using the Self-Rating Anxiety Scale and the Italian Emotion Awareness Questionnaire. An unexpected anxious phenomenology was found, affecting anxiety and the ideo-affective domain, while somatic symptomatology appeared to be less severe. The highest anxiety symptoms were breathing difficulties. These findings supported the hypothesis that the COVID-19 pandemic may be a risk condition for an increased state of anxiety in older adolescents and suggested the need to provide (1) an effective, empathic communication system with direct participation of older adolescents, (2) a psychological counseling service for the stress management of adolescents.

Misunderstandings about developmental dyslexia: a historical overview.

Developmental dyslexia is a reading disorder unrelated to intellectual disability, inadequate teaching systems or poor motivation for schooling. The first attempts to understand such difficulty of learning to read, connected the problem to a primary 'visual defect'. Since then, several models have been developed. In the last decades, autopsy and histopathological studies on the brain of developmental dyslexics provided neuroanatomical evidence of structural and morphological differences between the normal and dyslexic brains. Furthermore, neuroimaging studies allowed to understand the neural systems of reading and dyslexia. According to more recent studies, developmental dyslexia appears as a language-related neurodevelopmental disorder with a deficit in phonological decoding and visuospatial organization of the language code. Therefore, dyslexia is viewed as a multicomponential and complex disorder. Consequently, rehabilitation should be aimed at both the recovery of linguistic decoding processes and the improvement of visuo-spatial and attentional processes. This brief overview should be a valuable tool for a deeper understanding of dyslexic disorder. Literature searches in Medline, PsycINFO, EMBASE, Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science identified one hundred articles focusing attention on how this disorder has been considered over the years.

Noli Me Tangere: Social Touch, Tactile Defensiveness, and Communication in Neurodevelopmental Disorders.

Tactile defensiveness is a common feature in neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs). Since the first studies, tactile defensiveness has been described as the result of an abnormal response to sensory stimulation. Moreover, it has been studied how the tactile system is closely linked to socio-communicative development and how the interoceptive sensory system supports both a discriminating touch and an affective touch. Therefore, several neurophysiological studies have been conducted to investigate the neurobiological basis of the development and functioning of the tactile system for a better understanding of the tactile defensiveness behavior and the social touch of NDDs. Given the lack of recent literature on tactile defensiveness, the current study provides a brief overview of the original contributions on this research topic in children with NDDs focusing attention on how this behavior has been considered over the years in the clinical setting.

Parental Stress and Parental Ratings of Behavioral Problems of Enuretic Children.

Background: Primary monosymptomatic nocturnal enuresis (PMNE) may have a stressful impact on the everyday life of children and parents, and it may represent a cumulative stress factor increasing feelings of "learned helplessness." Methods: The current study investigated parental stress in a group of parents (n = 330) of children affected by PMNE, compared to a group of parents (n = 330) of typical developing children (TDC). In addition, the study evaluated whether parents of PMNE children experience more emotional, social, and behavioral problems in their children, compared to parents of TDC. Finally, the study correlated frequency of enuresis with stress values and Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) subscales and total stress with CBCL. Both groups were given The Parental Stress Inventory-Short Form (PSI-SF) and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Results: Parents of PMNE children showed significantly higher stress level than parents of TDC. Nocturnal enuresis, as a demanding clinical condition difficult to control, represents a relevant stress factor. Mothers appeared as more vulnerable to stress than fathers. Parents of PMNE children reported higher behavioral and emotional problems, compared to reports of parents of TDC. PMNE children appeared to their parents as having lower competency in social activities, school performance, and social relationships than TDC. Moreover, they were rated as more withdrawn, anxious-depressed, more aggressive, inattentive, and with more somatic complaints than healthy children. It was always the mother who rated a significantly higher number of emotional, social, and behavioral problems compared to fathers. Correlational analysis showed that the higher the frequency of enuresis, the greater the parental stress level, the lower the social activities, school performance and relational competencies and the higher the emotional, social and behavioral problems in children, according to the parents' evaluations. The greater the parental stress level, the lower the competencies rated and the higher the behavioral problems detected by parents. Conclusion: The physicians who deal with PMNE children have taken into account the stressful role and emotional dimensions of this clinical condition, both for children and mothers, in order to improve clinical management. Psychological support is needed for parents, and mothers especially, for a more functional stress management related to the PMNE.

Memory performances and personality traits in mothers of children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Chronic diseases in pediatric age have been identified as stressful risk factors for parents. Studies on caregivers have documented the impact of chronic parenting stress on emotion and cognition. AIM: To investigate the differences between a group of mothers of children affected by obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) for at least 4 years and a group of mothers of typically developing children (TDC) in relation to parental stress, self-esteem, locus of control, and memory performances. METHODS: A group of 86 mothers (mean age 35.6±4.9, ranged between 32 and 41 years) of children with OSAS diagnosis, and a group of 52 mothers of TDC (mean age 35.9±4.2, ranged between 32 and 41 years) participated in the study. All participants were administered stress level, global self-esteem, internal/external locus of control scales, and memory assessment. RESULTS: Mothers of OSAS children, compared to mothers of TDC, had a significantly higher level of stress, lower self-esteem, more external locus of control and poorer memory performance. CONCLUSIONS: The child respiratory disease, with its sudden and unpredictable features, appeared as a significant source of stress for the mother. Such stress condition may have an impact on mothers' personality traits (self-esteem, locus of control) and on their memory performances. The data have suggested a need for psychological support programs for mothers to better manage stress associated with children's respiratory disease.