Antibody validation for Western blot: By the user, for the user.

Well-characterized antibody reagents play a key role in the reproducibility of research findings, and inconsistent antibody performance leads to variability in Western blotting and other immunoassays. The current lack of clear, accepted standards for antibody validation and reporting of experimental details contributes to this problem. Because the performance of primary antibodies is strongly influenced by assay context, recommendations for validation and usage are unique to each type of immunoassay. Practical strategies are proposed for the validation of primary antibody specificity, selectivity, and reproducibility using Western blot analysis. The antibody should produce reproducible results within and between Western blotting experiments and the observed effect confirmed with a complementary or orthogonal method. Routine implementation of standardized antibody validation and reporting in immunoassays such as Western blotting may promote improved reproducibility across the global life sciences community.

Nitric oxide inhibits the accumulation of CD4+CD44hiTbet+CD69lo T cells in mycobacterial infection.

Animals lacking the inducible nitric oxide synthase gene (nos2(-/-)) are less susceptible to Mycobacterium avium strain 25291 and lack nitric oxide-mediated immunomodulation of CD4(+) T cells. Here we show that the absence of nos2 results in increased accumulation of neutrophils and both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells within the M. avium containing granuloma. Examination of the T-cell phenotype in M. avium infected mice demonstrated that CD4(+)CD44(hi) effector T cells expressing the Th1 transcriptional regulator T-bet (T-bet(+)) were specifically reduced by the presence of nitric oxide. Importantly, the T-bet(+) effector population could be separated into CD69(hi) and CD69(lo) populations, with the CD69(lo) population only able to accumulate during chronic infection within infected nos2(-/-) mice. Transcriptomic comparison between CD4(+)CD44(hi)CD69(hi) and CD4(+)CD44(hi)CD69(lo) populations revealed that CD4(+)CD44(hi)CD69(lo) cells had higher expression of the integrin itgb1/itga4 (VLA-4, CD49d/CD29). Inhibition of Nos2 activity allowed increased accumulation of the CD4(+) CD44(hi)T-bet(+)CD69(lo) population in WT mice as well as increased expression of VLA-4. These data support the hypothesis that effector T cells in mycobacterial granulomata are not a uniform effector population but exist in distinct subsets with differential susceptibility to the regulatory effects of nitric oxide.

Individual lysine acetylations on the N terminus of Saccharomyces cerevisiae H2A.Z are highly but not differentially regulated.

The multi-functional histone variant Htz1 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae H2A.Z) is acetylated on up to four N-terminal lysines at positions 3, 8, 10, and 14. It has thus been posited that specific acetylated forms of the histone could regulate distinct roles. Antibodies against Htz1-K8(Ac), -K10(Ac), and -K14(Ac) show that all three modifications are added by Esa1 acetyltransferase and removed by Hda1 deacetylase. Completely unacetylatable htz1 alleles exhibit widespread interactions in genome scale genetic screening. However, singly mutated (e.g. htz1-K8R) or singly acetylable (e.g. the triple mutant htz1-K3R/K10R/K14R) alleles show no significant defects in these analyses. This suggests that the N-terminal acetylations on Htz1 are internally redundant. Further supporting this proposal, each acetylation decays with similar kinetics when Htz1 transcription is repressed, and proteomic screening did not find a single condition in which one Htz1(Ac) was differentially regulated. However, whereas the individual acetylations on Htz1 may be redundant, they are not dispensable. Completely unacetylatable htz1 alleles display genetic interactions and phenotypes in common with and distinct from htz1Δ. In addition, each Htz1 N-terminal lysine is deacetylated by Hda1 in response to benomyl and reacetylated when this agent is removed. Such active regulation suggests that acetylation plays a significant role in Htz1 function.

Interleukin-12 and tuberculosis: an old story revisited.

Our understanding of the role of interleukin (IL)-12 in controlling tuberculosis has expanded because of increased interest in other members of the IL-12 family of cytokines. Recent data show that IL-12, IL-23 and IL-27 have specific roles in the initiation, expansion and control of the cellular response to tuberculosis. Specifically, IL-12, and to a lesser degree IL-23, generates protective cellular responses and promotes survival, whereas IL-27 moderates the inflammatory response and is required for long-term survival. Paradoxically, IL-27 also limits bacterial control, suggesting that a balance between bacterial killing and tissue damage is required for survival. Understanding the balance between IL-12, IL-23 and IL-27 is crucial to the development of immune intervention in tuberculosis.

The Antibody Society's antibody validation webinar series.

In the wake of the reproducibility crisis and numerous discussions on how commercially available antibodies as research tool contribute to it, The Antibody Society developed a series of 10 webinars to address the issues involved. The webinars were delivered by speakers with both academic and commercial backgrounds. This report highlights the problems, and offers solutions to help the scientific community appropriately identify the right antibodies and to validate them for their research and development projects. Despite the various solutions proposed here, they must be applied on a case-by-case basis. Each antibody must be verified based on the content of the product sheet, and subsequently through experimentation to confirm integrity, specificity and selectivity. Verification needs to focus on the precise application and tissue/cell type for which the antibody will be used, and all verification data must be reported openly. The various approaches discussed here all have caveats, so a combination of solutions must be considered.

Interleukin 27R regulates CD4+ T cell phenotype and impacts protective immunity during Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection.

CD4+ T cells mediate protection against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb); however, the phenotype of protective T cells is undefined, thereby confounding vaccination efforts. IL-27 is highly expressed during human tuberculosis (TB), and absence of IL-27R (Il27ra) specifically on T cells results in increased protection. IL-27R deficiency during chronic Mtb infection does not impact antigen-specific CD4+ T cell number but maintains programmed death-1 (PD-1), CD69, and CD127 expression while reducing T-bet and killer cell lectin-like receptor G1 (KLRG1) expression. Furthermore, T-bet haploinsufficiency results in failure to generate KLRG1+, antigen-specific CD4+ T cells, and in improved protection. T cells in Il27ra(-/-) mice accumulate preferentially in the lung parenchyma within close proximity to Mtb, and antigen-specific CD4+ T cells lacking IL-27R are intrinsically more fit than intact T cells and maintain IL-2 production. Improved fitness of IL-27R-deficient T cells is not associated with increased proliferation but with decreased expression of cell death-associated markers. Therefore, during Mtb infection, IL-27R acts intrinsically on T cells to limit protection and reduce fitness, whereas the IL-27R-deficient environment alters the phenotype and location of T cells. The significant expression of IL-27 in TB and the negative influence of IL-27R on T cell function demonstrate the pathway by which this cytokine/receptor pair is detrimental in TB.

Gamma interferon-induced T-cell loss in virulent Mycobacterium avium infection.

Infection by virulent Mycobacterium avium caused progressive severe lymphopenia in C57BL/6 mice due to increased apoptosis rates. T-cell depletion did not occur in gamma interferon (IFN-gamma)-deficient mice which showed increased T-cell numbers and proliferation; in contrast, deficiency in nitric oxide synthase 2 did not prevent T-cell loss. Although T-cell loss was IFN-gamma dependent, expression of the IFN-gamma receptor on T cells was not required for depletion. Similarly, while T-cell loss was optimal if the T cells expressed IFN-gamma, CD8(+) T-cell depletion could occur in the absence of T-cell-derived IFN-gamma. Depletion did not require that the T cells be specific for mycobacterial antigen and was not affected by deficiencies in the tumor necrosis factor receptors p55 or p75, the Fas receptor (CD95), or the respiratory burst enzymes or by forced expression of bcl-2 in hematopoietic cells.

IL-27 signaling compromises control of bacterial growth in mycobacteria-infected mice.

Resistance to tuberculosis (TB) is dependent on the induction of Ag-specific CD4 Th1 T cells capable of expressing IFN-gamma. Generation of these T cells is dependent upon IL-12p70, yet other cytokines have also been implicated in this process. One such cytokine, IL-27, augments differentiation of naive T cells toward an IFN-gamma-producing phenotype by up-regulating the transcription factor T-bet and promoting expression of the IL-12Rbeta2 chain allowing T cells to respond to IL-12p70. We show that the components of IL-27 are induced during TB and that the absence of IL-27 signaling results in an altered disease profile. In the absence of the IL-27R, there is reduced bacterial burden and an increased lymphocytic character to the TB granuloma. Although the number of Ag-specific CD4 IFN-gamma-producing cells is unaffected by the absence of the IL-27R, there is a significant decrease in the level of mRNA for IFN-gamma and T-bet within the lungs of infected IL-27R(-/-) mice. Ag-specific CD4 T cells in the lungs of IL-27R(-/-) also produce less IFN-gamma protein per cell. The data show that expression of IL-27 during TB is detrimental to the control of bacteria and that although it does not affect the number of cells capable of producing IFN-gamma it does reduce the ability of CD4 T cells to produce large amounts of IFN-gamma. Because IFN-gamma is detrimental to the survival of effector T cells, we hypothesize that the reduced IFN-gamma within the IL-27R(-/-) lung is responsible for the increased accumulation of lymphocytes within the mycobacterial granuloma.

Innate inhibition of adaptive immunity: Mycobacterium tuberculosis-induced IL-6 inhibits macrophage responses to IFN-gamma.

In humans and in mice, control of the intracellular pathogen, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), requires IFN-gamma. Although the adaptive immune response results in production of substantial amounts of IFN-gamma in response to Mtb, the immune response is unable to eradicate the infection in most cases. We have previously reported evidence that Mtb inhibits macrophage responses to IFN-gamma, suggesting that this may limit the ability of IFN-gamma to stimulate macrophages to kill Mtb. We have also observed that uninfected macrophages, adjacent to infected macrophages in culture, exhibit decreased responses to IFN-gamma. Here we report that IL-6 secreted by Mtb-infected macrophages inhibits the responses of uninfected macrophages to IFN-gamma. IL-6 selectively inhibits a subset of IFN-gamma-responsive genes at the level of transcriptional activation without inhibiting activation or function of STAT1. Inhibition of macrophage responses to IFN-gamma by IL-6 requires new protein synthesis, but this effect is not attributable to suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 or 3. These results reveal a novel function for IL-6 and indicate that IL-6 secreted by Mtb-infected macrophages may contribute to the inability of the cellular immune response to eradicate infection.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis inhibits macrophage responses to IFN-gamma through myeloid differentiation factor 88-dependent and -independent mechanisms.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis overcomes macrophage bactericidal activities and persists intracellularly. One mechanism by which M. tuberculosis avoids macrophage killing might be through inhibition of IFN-gamma-mediated signaling. In this study we provide evidence that at least two distinct components of M. tuberculosis, the 19-kDa lipoprotein and cell wall peptidoglycan (contained in the mycolylarabinogalactan peptidoglycan (mAGP) complex), inhibit macrophage responses to IFN-gamma at a transcriptional level. Moreover, these components engage distinct proximal signaling pathways to inhibit responses to IFN-gamma: the 19-kDa lipoprotein inhibits IFN-gamma signaling in a Toll-like receptor (TLR)2-dependent and myeloid differentiation factor 88-dependent fashion whereas mAGP inhibits independently of TLR2, TLR4, and myeloid differentiation factor 88. In addition to inhibiting the induction of specific IFN-gamma responsive genes, the 19-kDa lipoprotein and mAGP inhibit the ability of IFN-gamma to activate murine macrophages to kill virulent M. tuberculosis without inhibiting production of NO. These results imply that inhibition of macrophage responses to IFN-gamma may contribute to the inability of an apparently effective immune response to eradicate M. tuberculosis.