Data-driven approaches can harness crop diversity to address heterogeneous needs for breeding products.

This perspective describes the opportunities and challenges of data-driven approaches for crop diversity management (genebanks and breeding) in the context of agricultural research for sustainable development in the Global South. Data-driven approaches build on larger volumes of data and flexible analyses that link different datasets across domains and disciplines. This can lead to more information-rich management of crop diversity, which can address the complex interactions between crop diversity, production environments, and socioeconomic heterogeneity and help to deliver more suitable portfolios of crop diversity to users with highly diverse demands. We describe recent efforts that illustrate the potential of data-driven approaches for crop diversity management. A continued investment in this area should fill remaining gaps and seize opportunities, including i) supporting genebanks to play a more active role in linking with farmers using data-driven approaches; ii) designing low-cost, appropriate technologies for phenotyping; iii) generating more and better gender and socioeconomic data; iv) designing information products to facilitate decision-making; and v) building more capacity in data science. Broad, well-coordinated policies and investments are needed to avoid fragmentation of such capacities and achieve coherence between domains and disciplines so that crop diversity management systems can become more effective in delivering benefits to farmers, consumers, and other users of crop diversity.

Patterns of Exchange of Multiplying Onion (Allium cepa L. Aggregatum-Group) in Fennoscandian Home Gardens.

Multiplying onion (Allium cepa L. Aggregatum-Group), commonly known as shallot or potato onion, has a long tradition of cultivation in Fennoscandian home gardens. During the last decades, more than 80 accessions, maintained as vegetatively propagated clones, have been gathered from home gardens in all Fennoscandian countries. A genetic analysis showed regional patterns of accessions belonging to the same genetic group. However, accessions belonging to the same genetic group could originate in any of the countries. These results suggested both short- and long-distance exchange of set onions, which was confirmed by several survey responses. Some of the most common genetic groups also resembled different modern varieties. The morphological characterization illustrated that most characters were strongly influenced by environment and set onion properties. The only reliably scorable trait was bulb skin color. Neither our morphological nor genetic results support a division between potato onions and shallots. Instead, naming seems to follow linguistic traditions. An ethnobotanical survey tells of the Fennoscandian multiplying onions as being a crop with reliable harvest, excellent storage ability, and good taste. An increased cultivation of this material on both household and commercial scale should be possible.

Ecologically implausible carbon response?

Magnani et al. present a very strong correlation between mean lifetime net ecosystem production (NEP, defined as the net rate of carbon (C) accumulation in ecosystems) and wet nitrogen (N) deposition. For their data in the range 4.9-9.8 kg N ha(-1) yr(-1), on which the correlation largely depends, the response is approximately 725 kg C per kg N in wet deposition. According to the authors, the maximum N wet deposition level of 9.8 kg N ha(-1) yr(-1) is equivalent to a total deposition of 15 kg N ha(-1 )yr(-1), implying a net sequestration near 470 kg C per kg N of total deposition. We question the ecological plausibility of the relationship and show, from a multi-factor analysis of European forest measurements, how interactions with site productivity and environment imply a much smaller NEP response to N deposition.

Nanofungicides with Selenium and Silicon Can Boost the Growth and Yield of Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and Control Alternaria Leaf Spot Disease.

There is an urgent need to reduce the intensive use of chemical fungicides due to their potential damage to human health and the environment. The current study investigated whether nano-selenium (nano-Se) and nano-silica (nano-SiO2) could be used against the leaf spot disease caused by Alternaria alternata in a common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). The engineered Se and SiO2 nanoparticles were compared to a traditional fungicide and a negative control with no treatment, and experiments were repeated during two successive seasons in fields and in vitro. The in vitro study showed that 100 ppm nano-Se had an efficacy rate of 85.1% on A. alternata mycelial growth, followed by the combined applications (Se + SiO2 at half doses) with an efficacy rate of 77.8%. The field study showed that nano-Se and the combined application of nano-Se and nano-SiO2 significantly decreased the disease severity of A. alternata. There were no significant differences among nano-Se, the combined application, and the fungicide treatment (positive control). As compared to the negative control (no treatment), leaf weight increased by 38.3%, the number of leaves per plant by 25.7%, chlorophyll A by 24%, chlorophyll B by 17.5%, and total dry seed yield by 30%. In addition, nano-Se significantly increased the enzymatic capacity (i.e., CAT, POX, PPO) and antioxidant activity in the leaves. Our current study is the first to report that the selected nano-minerals are real alternatives to chemical fungicides for controlling A. alternata in common beans. This work suggests the potential of nanoparticles as alternatives to fungicides. Further studies are needed to better understand the mechanisms and how different nano-materials could be used against phytopathogens.

Limited genetic changes observed during in situ and ex situ conservation in Nordic populations of red clover (Trifolium pratense).

Introduction: In situ and ex situ conservation are the two main approaches for preserving genetic diversity. The advantages and disadvantages of the two approaches have been discussed but their genetic effects have not been fully evaluated. Methods: In this study we investigate the effects of the two conservation approaches on genetic diversity in red clover. Seed samples collected from wild populations in Sweden and Norway in 1980, their subsequent generations created during seed regeneration at the gene bank and samples recollected from the same location as the original samples, were analyzed with microsatellite markers, alongside reference samples from cultivars. Results: Overall, there was a differentiation between cultivars and the wild material and between wild material from Sweden and Norway. In general, the original collections clustered together with the later generations of the same accession in the gene bank, and with the recollected samples from the same location, and the level of diversity remained the same among samples of the same accession. Limited gene flow from cultivated varieties to the wild populations was detected; however, some wild individuals are likely to be escapees or affected by gene flow. Discussion: In conclusion, there were examples of genetic changes within individual accessions both in situ and ex situ, as is also to be expected in any living population. However, we observed only limited genetic changes in both in situ and ex situ conservation over the generations included in this study and with the relatively large populations used in the ex situ conservation in the gene bank at NordGen.

Biotechnological Applications of Mushrooms under the Water-Energy-Food Nexus: Crucial Aspects and Prospects from Farm to Pharmacy.

Mushrooms have always been an important source of food, with high nutritional value and medicinal attributes. With the use of biotechnological applications, mushrooms have gained further attention as a source of healthy food and bioenergy. This review presents different biotechnological applications and explores how these can support global food, energy, and water security. It highlights mushroom's relevance to meet the sustainable development goals of the UN. This review also discusses mushroom farming and its requirements. The biotechnology review includes sections on how to use mushrooms in producing nanoparticles, bioenergy, and bioactive compounds, as well as how to use mushrooms in bioremediation. The different applications are discussed under the water, energy, and food (WEF) nexus. As far as we know, this is the first report on mushroom biotechnology and its relationships to the WEF nexus. Finally, the review valorizes mushroom biotechnology and suggests different possibilities for mushroom farming integration.

Biological Nanofertilizers to Enhance Growth Potential of Strawberry Seedlings by Boosting Photosynthetic Pigments, Plant Enzymatic Antioxidants, and Nutritional Status.

Strawberry production presents special challenges due the plants' shallow roots. The rooting stage of strawberry is a crucial period in the production of this important crop. Several amendments have been applied to support the growth and production of strawberry, particularly fertilizers, to overcome rooting problems. Therefore, the current investigation was carried out to evaluate the application of biological nanofertilizers in promoting strawberry rooting. The treatments included applying two different nanofertilizers produced biologically, nano-selenium (i.e., 25, 50, 75, and 100 mg L-1) and nano-copper (i.e., 50 and 100 mg L-1), plus a control (untreated seedlings). The rooting of strawberry seedlings was investigated by measuring the vegetative growth parameters (root weight, seedling weight, seedling length, and number of leaves), plant enzymatic antioxidants (catalase, peroxidase, and polyphenol oxidase activity), and chlorophyll content and its fluorescence and by evaluating the nutritional status (content of nutrients in the fruit and their uptake). The results showed that the applied nanofertilizers improved the growth, photosynthetic pigments, antioxidant content, and nutritional status of the seedlings compared to the control. A high significant increase in nutrient contents reached to more than 14-fold, 6-fold, 5-folf, and 4-fold for Cu, Mn, N, and Se contents, respectively, due to the applied nanofertilizers compared with the control. The result was related to the biological roles of both Se and CuO in activating the many plant enzymes. Comparing the Se with the CuO nanofertilizer, Cu had the strongest effect, which was shown in the higher values in all studied properties. This study showed that nanofertilizers are useful to stimulate strawberry seedling growth and most likely would also be beneficial for other horticultural crops. In general, the applied 100 ppm of biological nano-Se or nano-CuO might achieve the best growth of strawberry seedlings under growth conditions in greenhouses compared to the control. Along with the economic dimension, the ecological dimension of biological nanofertilizers still needs more investigation.

The Impact of N.I. Vavilov on the Conservation and Use of Plant Genetic Resources in Scandinavia: A Review.

In this review we examine Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov's relationship to Scandinavia and the impact he and his ideas have had on Scandinavia. We trace the historical connections from Vavilov back to 18th century scientists, such as Carl Von Linneaus (Sweden) and 19th century European scientists such as Alphonse de Candolle (Switzerland), Henry de Vilmorin (France), and William Bateson (England). Vavilov has influenced the conservation work in Scandinavia resulting amongst other in the establishment of the Nordic Gene Bank in 1979 and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault which started operating in 2008. Vavilov travelled to Scandinavia in 1921 and in 1931 to give lectures and exchange ideas, especially with the breeders at the Swedish Seed Association (Svalöf) in Scania, Sweden, but also at the Copenhagen University in Denmark. Vavilov did not recognize Scandinavia as part of a center of origin of cultivated plants. It was only after World War II, when P.M. Zhukovsky, a scholar of N.I Vavilov, developed the concept of mega-centers of diversity of cultivated plants, that Scandinavia became part of what he termed the European-Siberian Region of Diversity. We list species domesticated in Scandinavia or Northern Europe, and we further discuss concepts related to crop evolution and highlight the great impact Vavilov has had by inspiring scientists across disciplines and over many decades.

Leaf Extracts from Resistant Wild Tomato Can Be Used to Control Late Blight (Phytophthora infestans) in the Cultivated Tomato.

Late blight disease, caused by Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary, is one of the most challenging diseases threatening tomato production and other Solanaceae crops. Resistance to late blight is found in certain wild species, but the mechanism behind the resistance is not fully understood. The aim of this study was to examine the metabolic profiles in the leaf tissue of late blight-resistant wild tomato and to investigate if leaf extracts from such genotypes could be used to control late blight in tomato production. We included three recognized late blight-resistant wild tomato accessions of Solanum habrochaites (LA1777, LA2855, and LA1352) and two recognized highly susceptible genotypes, S. lycopersicum ('Super Strain B') and S. pimpinellifolium (LA0375). The metabolic profiles were obtained in both inoculated and non-inoculated plants by analyzing leaf extracts using high-resolution gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) with three replicate analyses of each genotype. We focused on volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and identified 31 such compounds from the five genotypes with a retention time ranging from 6.6 to 22.8 min. The resistant genotype LA 1777 produced the highest number of VOCs (22 and 21 in the inoculated and control plants, respectively), whereas the susceptible genotype 'Super Strain B' produced the lowest number of VOCs (11 and 13 in the respective plants). Among the VOCs, 14 were detected only in the resistant genotypes, while two were detected only in the susceptible ones. In vitro trials, with the use of a detached leaflet assay and whole-plant approach, were conducted. We revealed promising insights regarding late blight management and showed that metabolic profiling may contribute to a better understanding of the mechanisms behind P. infestans resistance in tomato and its wild relatives.

Data-driven decentralized breeding increases prediction accuracy in a challenging crop production environment.

Crop breeding must embrace the broad diversity of smallholder agricultural systems to ensure food security to the hundreds of millions of people living in challenging production environments. This need can be addressed by combining genomics, farmers' knowledge, and environmental analysis into a data-driven decentralized approach (3D-breeding). We tested this idea as a proof-of-concept by comparing a durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) decentralized trial distributed as incomplete blocks in 1,165 farmer-managed fields across the Ethiopian highlands with a benchmark representing genomic prediction applied to conventional breeding. We found that 3D-breeding could double the prediction accuracy of the benchmark. 3D-breeding could identify genotypes with enhanced local adaptation providing superior productive performance across seasons. We propose this decentralized approach to leverage the diversity in farmer fields and complement conventional plant breeding to enhance local adaptation in challenging crop production environments.

SNP Markers and Evaluation of Duplicate Holdings of Brassica oleracea in Two European Genebanks.

Around the world, there are more than 1500 genebanks storing plant genetic resources to be used in breeding and research. Such resources are essential for future food security, but many genebanks experience backlogs in their conservation work, often combined with limited budgets. Therefore, avoiding duplicate holdings is on the agenda. A process of coordination has started, aiming at sharing the responsibility of maintaining the unique accessions while allowing access according to the international treaty for plant genetic resources. Identifying duplicate holdings based on passport data has been one component of this. In the past, and especially in vegetables, different selections within the same varieties were common and the naming practices of cultivars/selections were flexible. Here, we examined 10 accession pairs/groups of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) with similar names maintained in the Russian and Nordic genebanks. The accessions were analyzed for 11 morphological traits and with a SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism) array developed for B. napus. Both proved to be useful tools for understanding the genetic structure among the accessions and for identifying duplicates, and a subset of 500 SNP markers are suggested for future Brassica oleracea genetic characterization. Within five out of 10 pairs/groups, we detected clear genetic differences among the accessions, and three of these were confirmed by significant differences in one or several morphological traits. In one case, a white cabbage and a red cabbage had similar accession names. The study highlights the necessity to be careful when identifying duplicate accessions based solely on the name, especially in older cross-pollinated species such as cabbage.

Long-Term Storage and Longevity of Orthodox Seeds: A Systematic Review.

As part of conservation of plant genetic resources, long-term storage of seeds is highly relevant for genebanks. Here we present a systematic review and a meta-analysis of studies on seed longevity focusing on half-life (P50) under different storage conditions. Six studies were selected for the meta-analysis; in addition, a high number of additional references were included in the discussion of the results. The results show that under ambient conditions, half-life is short, from 5 to 10 years, while under more optimal conditions, which for orthodox seeds is at low humidity and low temperature, half-life is more in the 40-60 years range, although with large interspecies variation. Under long-term genebank conditions, with seeds dried to equilibrium and thereafter kept at minus 18-20°C in waterproof bags or jars, half-life can be twice or three times as long. In general, many of the grain legume seeds, as well as corn, common oat, and common barley are long-lived, while cereal rye, onion, garden lettuce, pepper, and some of the forage grasses are more short-lived. Conditions during maturation and harvesting influence longevity, and proper maturation and gentle handling are known to be of importance. Seed longevity models have been developed to predict final germination based on initial viability, temperature, humidity, storage time, and species information. We compared predicted germination to results from the long-term experiments. The predicted values were higher or much higher than the observed values, which demonstrate that something in the seed handling in the genebanks have not been optimal. Long-term studies are now available with data at least up to 60 years of storage. Our review shows that the knowledge and methodology developed for the conservation of plant genetic resources should also work for wild species of orthodox seed nature.

Seed Germination after 30 Years Storage in Permafrost.

More than 30 years ago, the Nordic Gene Bank established a long-term experiment on seeds stored under permafrost conditions in an abandoned mine corridor in Svalbard, as a tool to monitor storage life under these conditions. The study included seeds from 16 Nordic agricultural and horticultural crops, each represented by two or three cultivars (altogether 38 accessions). All seeds were ultra-dried to 3%-5% moisture before being sealed in glass tubes. Germination tests were performed in accordance with the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) protocols. At the initiation of the experiment, the samples showed good germination with the median value at 92%. The overall picture remained stable over the first twenty to twenty-five years. However, the variation became larger over time and at 30 years, the median value had dropped to 80%. At the lower end, with a high drop in germination, we found rye, wheat, and English ryegrass. At the upper end, we found Kentucky bluegrass and cucumber. The lowest germination was found in samples with the highest initial seed moisture levels. Pre-storage conditions are likely to be of major importance for longevity.

Mapping patterns of abiotic and biotic stress resilience uncovers conservation gaps and breeding potential of Vigna wild relatives.

This study provides insights in patterns of distribution of abiotic and biotic stress resilience across Vigna gene pools to enhance the use and conservation of these genetic resources for legume breeding. Vigna is a pantropical genus with more than 88 taxa including important crops such as V. radiata (mung bean) and V. unguiculata (cowpea). Our results show that sources of pest and disease resistance occur in at least 75 percent of the Vigna taxa, which were part of screening assessments, while sources of abiotic stress resilience occur in less than 30 percent of screened taxa. This difference in levels of resilience suggests that Vigna taxa co-evolve with pests and diseases while taxa are more conservative to adapt to climatic changes and salinization. Twenty-two Vigna taxa are poorly conserved in genebanks or not at all. This germplasm is not available for legume breeding and requires urgent germplasm collecting before these taxa extirpate on farm and in the wild. Vigna taxa, which tolerate heat and drought stress are rare compared with taxa, which escape these stresses because of short growing seasons or with taxa, which tolerate salinity. We recommend prioritizing these rare Vigna taxa for conservation and screening for combined abiotic and biotic stress resilience resulting from stacked or multifunctional traits. The high presence of salinity tolerance compared with drought stress tolerance, suggests that Vigna taxa are good at developing salt-tolerant traits. Vigna taxa are therefore of high value for legume production in areas that will suffer from salinization under global climate change.

Perspectives of Microbial Inoculation for Sustainable Development and Environmental Management.

How to sustainably feed a growing global population is a question still without an answer. Particularly farmers, to increase production, tend to apply more fertilizers and pesticides, a trend especially predominant in developing countries. Another challenge is that industrialization and other human activities produce pollutants, which accumulate in soils or aquatic environments, contaminating them. Not only is human well-being at risk, but also environmental health. Currently, recycling, land-filling, incineration and pyrolysis are being used to reduce the concentration of toxic pollutants from contaminated sites, but too have adverse effects on the environment, producing even more resistant and highly toxic intermediate compounds. Moreover, these methods are expensive, and are difficult to execute for soil, water, and air decontamination. Alternatively, green technologies are currently being developed to degrade toxic pollutants. This review provides an overview of current research on microbial inoculation as a way to either replace or reduce the use of agrochemicals and clean environments heavily affected by pollution. Microorganism-based inoculants that enhance nutrient uptake, promote crop growth, or protect plants from pests and diseases can replace agrochemicals in food production. Several examples of how biofertilizers and biopesticides enhance crop production are discussed. Plant roots can be colonized by a variety of favorable species and genera that promote plant growth. Microbial interventions can also be used to clean contaminated sites from accumulated pesticides, heavy metals, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, and other industrial effluents. The potential of and key processes used by microorganisms for sustainable development and environmental management are discussed in this review, followed by their future prospects.

A roadmap for breeding orphan leafy vegetable species: a case study of Gynandropsis gynandra (Cleomaceae).

Despite an increasing awareness of the potential of "orphan" or unimproved crops to contribute to food security and enhanced livelihoods for farmers, coordinated research agendas to facilitate production and use of orphan crops by local communities are generally lacking. We provide an overview of the current knowledge on leafy vegetables with a focus on Gynandropsis gynandra, a highly nutritious species used in Africa and Asia, and highlight general and species-specific guidelines for participatory, genomics-assisted breeding of orphan crops. Key steps in genome-enabled orphan leafy vegetables improvement are identified and discussed in the context of Gynandropsis gynandra breeding, including: (1) germplasm collection and management; (2) product target definition and refinement; (3) characterization of the genetic control of key traits; (4) design of the 'process' for cultivar development; (5) integration of genomic data to optimize that 'process'; (6) multi-environmental participatory testing and end-user evaluation; and (7) crop value chain development. The review discusses each step in detail, with emphasis on improving leaf yield, phytonutrient content, organoleptic quality, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and post-harvest management.

World Vegetable Center Eggplant Collection: Origin, Composition, Seed Dissemination and Utilization in Breeding.

Eggplant is the fifth most economically important solanaceous crop after potato, tomato, pepper, and tobacco. Apart from the well-known brinjal eggplant (Solanum melongena L.), two other under-utilized eggplant species, the scarlet eggplant (S. aethiopicum L.) and the gboma eggplant (S. macrocarpon L.) are also cultivated. The taxonomy and identification of eggplant wild relatives is challenging for breeders due to the large number of related species, but recent phenotypic and genetic data and classification in primary, secondary, and tertiary genepools, as well as information on the domestication process and wild progenitors, facilitates their utilization in breeding. The World Vegetable Center (WorldVeg) holds a large public germplasm collection of eggplant, which includes the three cultivated species and more than 30 eggplant wild relatives, with more than 3,200 accessions collected from 90 countries. Over the last 15 years, more than 10,000 seed samples from the Center's eggplant collection have been shared with public and private sector entities, including other genebanks. An analysis of the global occurrences and genebank holdings of cultivated eggplants and their wild relatives reveals that the WorldVeg genebank holds the world's largest public collection of the three cultivated eggplant species. The composition, seed dissemination and utilization of germplasm from the Center's collection are highlighted. In recent years more than 1,300 accessions of eggplant have been characterized for yield and fruit quality parameters. Further screening for biotic and abiotic stresses in eggplant wild relatives is a priority, as is the need to amass more comprehensive knowledge regarding wild relatives' potential for use in breeding. However, as is the case for many other crops, wild relatives are highly under-represented in the global conservation system of eggplant genetic resources.

Aluminum dynamics in forest soil waters in Norway.

We report on weekly aluminum (Al) concentration measurements in soil water from forested catchments monitored throughout Norway since 1986. Originating in acidification research, and thus accompanied by many other chemical variables, they constitute a comprehensive data set suited for analysis of short- as well as long-term variations in a geographic perspective. The Al time series at 21 sites are characterized by high temporal variability, seasonal behavior, and episodic events with peak values in the range 200-800 micromol/l, mostly caused by sea salts blown inland in storms, with a subsequent release of Al after cation exchange. Despite a clear south-north gradient in possible acidification over Norway, we found no indication of such south-north trends in Al chemistry, neither in mean values, maximum values, nor time trends. We identified two main drivers for variation in Al concentrations. The first one was sea salts, where Al was released to the soil solution after cation exchange. The second driver was high production of DOC, where Al was driven into the soil solution by complexation with DOC. There appears to be little risk for aluminum toxicity to trees in Norwegian forests. Except during occasional episodes, aluminum concentrations generally lay far below the supposed threshold values for toxic effects on Norway spruce, Scots pine and birch. Much dissolved aluminum was non-labile, and thus relatively non-toxic. Although the Ca2+/labile Al ratio was often below 1.0, considerable doubt exists as to the applicability of this variable in the field.

Mapping and estimating the total living biomass and carbon in low-biomass woodlands using Landsat 8 CDR data.

BACKGROUND: A functional forest carbon measuring, reporting and verification (MRV) system to support climate change mitigation policies, such as REDD+, requires estimates of forest biomass carbon, as an input to estimate emissions. A combination of field inventory and remote sensing is expected to provide those data. By linking Landsat 8 and forest inventory data, we (1) developed linear mixed effects models for total living biomass (TLB) estimation as a function of spectral variables, (2) developed a 30 m resolution map of the total living carbon (TLC), and (3) estimated the total TLB stock of the study area. Inventory data consisted of tree measurements from 500 plots in 63 clusters in a 15,700 km2 study area, in miombo woodlands of Tanzania. The Landsat 8 data comprised two climate data record images covering the inventory area. RESULTS: We found a linear relationship between TLB and Landsat 8 derived spectral variables, and there was no clear evidence of spectral data saturation at higher biomass values. The root-mean-square error of the values predicted by the linear model linking the TLB and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) is equal to 44 t/ha (49 % of the mean value). The estimated TLB for the study area was 140 Mt, with a mean TLB density of 81 t/ha, and a 95 % confidence interval of 74-88 t/ha. We mapped the distribution of TLC of the study area using the TLB model, where TLC was estimated at 47 % of TLB. CONCLUSION: The low biomass in the miombo woodlands, and the absence of a spectral data saturation problem suggested that Landsat 8 derived NDVI is suitable auxiliary information for carbon monitoring in the context of REDD+, for low-biomass, open-canopy woodlands.