Real-world experience of therapeutic drug monitoring and PK/PD achievement of ceftaroline administered by different infusion regimens in patients with confirmed infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria.

BACKGROUND: Ceftaroline is a novel cephalosporin active against MDR Gram-positive (GP) bacteria. For ß-lactam antibiotics, such as ceftaroline, prolonged infusions and therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) are used for dosage optimization based on their pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics (PK/PD). OBJECTIVES: To describe our experience with TDM and PK/PD target attainment of ceftaroline administered by intermittent and prolonged infusion in a cohort of patients with MDR-GP bacterial infections. METHODS: Patients treated with ceftaroline administered by continuous (24 h), extended (3 h/6 h) and intermittent infusion (1 h) and undergoing TDM of plasma concentrations were included. A 100%fT>4×MIC was the pre-specified PK/PD target and 100%fT>10×MIC was considered overexposure. Dose recommendations were made based on TDM results and each patient's clinical condition. RESULTS: Twelve patients [83.3% male, median age of 73 (38-83) years] were included. Nine patients (75%) achieved 100%fT>4×MIC, all under prolonged infusions. In one patient, the 100%fT was >10×MIC but no toxicity was observed. Based on TDM results, initial doses were recommended to be maintained in eight patients, decreased in three and increased in one. CONCLUSIONS: The administration of ceftaroline by prolonged infusion together with TDM may be a useful strategy for achieving the desired PK/PD target in these patients. However, more studies evaluating the relationship between PK/PD attainment and clinical outcomes are needed.

Effectiveness of fosfomycin trometamol as oral step-down therapy for bacteraemic urinary tract infections due to MDR Escherichia coli: a post hoc analysis of the FOREST randomized trial.

BACKGROUND: Fosfomycin is a potentially attractive option as step-down therapy for bacteraemic urinary tract infections (BUTI), but available data are scarce. Our objective was to compare the effectiveness and safety of fosfomycin trometamol and other oral drugs as step-down therapy in patients with BUTI due to MDR Escherichia coli (MDR-Ec). METHODS: Participants in the FOREST trial (comparing IV fosfomycin with ceftriaxone or meropenem for BUTI caused by MDR-Ec in 22 Spanish hospitals from June 2014 to December 2018) who were stepped-down to oral fosfomycin (3 g q48h) or other drugs were included. The primary endpoint was clinical and microbiological cure (CMC) 5-7 days after finalization of treatment. A multivariate analysis was performed using logistic regression to estimate the association of oral step-down with fosfomycin with CMC adjusted for confounders. RESULTS: Overall, 61 patients switched to oral fosfomycin trometamol and 47 to other drugs (cefuroxime axetil, 28; amoxicillin/clavulanic acid and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, 7 each; ciprofloxacin, 5) were included. CMC was reached by 48/61 patients (78.7%) treated with fosfomycin trometamol and 38/47 (80.9%) with other drugs (difference, -2.2; 95% CI: -17.5 to 13.1; P = 0.38). Subgroup analyses provided similar results. Relapses occurred in 9/61 (15.0%) and 2/47 (4.3%) of patients, respectively (P = 0.03). The adjusted OR for CMC was 1.11 (95% CI: 0.42-3.29, P = 0.75). No relevant differences in adverse events were seen. CONCLUSIONS: Fosfomycin trometamol might be a reasonable option as step-down therapy in patients with BUTI due to MDR-Ec but the higher rate of relapses would need further assessment.

Comparison of Hospitalized Coronavirus Disease 2019 and Influenza Patients Requiring Supplemental Oxygen in a Cohort Study: Clinical Impact and Resource Consumption.

BACKGROUND: To compare clinical characteristics, outcomes, and resource consumption of patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and seasonal influenza requiring supplemental oxygen. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study conducted at a tertiary-care hospital. Patients admitted because of seasonal influenza between 2017 and 2019, or with COVID-19 between March and May 2020 requiring supplemental oxygen were compared. Primary outcome: 30-day mortality. Secondary outcomes: 90-day mortality and hospitalization costs. Attempted sample size to detect an 11% difference in mortality was 187 patients per group. RESULTS: COVID-19 cases were younger (median years of age, 67; interquartile range [IQR] 54-78 vs 76 [IQR 64-83]; P < .001) and more frequently overweight, whereas influenza cases had more hypertension, immunosuppression, and chronic heart, respiratory, and renal disease. Compared with influenza, COVID-19 cases had more pneumonia (98% vs 60%, <.001), higher Modified Early Warning Score (MEWS) and CURB-65 (confusion, blood urea nitrogen, respiratory rate, systolic blood pressure, and age >65 years) scores and were more likely to show worse progression on the World Health Organization ordinal scale (33% vs 4%; P < .001). The 30-day mortality rate was higher for COVID-19 than for influenza: 15% vs 5% (P = .001). The median age of nonsurviving cases was 81 (IQR 74-88) and 77.5 (IQR 65-84) (P = .385), respectively. COVID-19 was independently associated with 30-day (hazard ratio [HR], 4.6; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2-10.4) and 90-day (HR, 5.2; 95% CI, 2.4-11.4) mortality. Sensitivity and subgroup analyses, including a subgroup considering only patients with pneumonia, did not show different trends. Regarding resource consumption, COVID-19 patients had longer hospital stays and higher critical care, pharmacy, and complementary test costs. CONCLUSIONS: Although influenza patients were older and had more comorbidities, COVID-19 cases requiring supplemental oxygen on admission had worse clinical and economic outcomes.

Infections after spine instrumentation: effectiveness of short antibiotic treatment in a large multicentre cohort.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Available information about infection after spine instrumentation (IASI) and its management are scarce. We aimed to analyse DAIR (debridement, antibiotics and implant retention) prognosis and evaluate effectiveness of short antibiotic courses on early forms. METHODS: Multicentre retrospective study of patients with IASI managed surgically (January 2010-December 2016). Risk factors for failure were analysed by multivariate Cox regression and differences between short and long antibiotic treatment were evaluated with a propensity score-matched analysis. RESULTS: Of the 411 IASI cases, 300 (73%) presented in the first month after surgery, 48 in the second month, 22 in the third and 41 thereafter. Infections within the first 2 months (early cases) occurred mainly to older patients, with local inflammatory signs and predominance of Enterobacteriaceae, unlike those in the later periods. When managed with DAIR, prognosis of early cases was better than later ones (failure rate 10.4% versus 26.1%, respectively; P = 0.02). Risk factors for DAIR failure in early cases were female sex, Charlson Score, large fusions (>6 levels) and polymicrobial infections (adjusted HRs of 2.4, 1.3, 2.6 and 2.26, respectively). Propensity score matching proved shorter courses of antibiotics (4-6 weeks) as effective as longer courses (failure rates 11.4% and 10.5%, respectively; P = 0.870). CONCLUSIONS: IASIs within the first 2 months could be managed effectively with DAIR and shorter antibiotic courses. Clinicians should be cautious when faced with patients with comorbidities, large fusions and/or polymicrobial infections.

Epidemiology and Treatment of Multidrug-Resistant and Extensively Drug-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infections.

In recent years, the worldwide spread of the so-called high-risk clones of multidrug-resistant or extensively drug-resistant (MDR/XDR) Pseudomonas aeruginosa has become a public health threat. This article reviews their mechanisms of resistance, epidemiology, and clinical impact and current and upcoming therapeutic options. In vitro and in vivo treatment studies and pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) models are discussed. Polymyxins are reviewed as an important therapeutic option, outlining dosage, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, and their clinical efficacy against MDR/XDR P. aeruginosa infections. Their narrow therapeutic window and potential for combination therapy are also discussed. Other "old" antimicrobials, such as certain ß-lactams, aminoglycosides, and fosfomycin, are reviewed here. New antipseudomonals, as well as those in the pipeline, are also reviewed. Ceftolozane-tazobactam has clinical activity against a significant percentage of MDR/XDR P. aeruginosa strains, and its microbiological and clinical data, as well as recommendations for improving its use against these bacteria, are described, as are those for ceftazidime-avibactam, which has better activity against MDR/XDR P. aeruginosa, especially strains with certain specific mechanisms of resistance. A section is devoted to reviewing upcoming active drugs such as imipenem-relebactam, cefepime-zidebactam, cefiderocol, and murepavadin. Finally, other therapeutic strategies, such as use of vaccines, antibodies, bacteriocins, anti-quorum sensing, and bacteriophages, are described as future options.

Efficacy of Ceftolozane-Tazobactam in Combination with Colistin against Extensively Drug-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Including High-Risk Clones, in an In Vitro Pharmacodynamic Model.

Combination therapy is an attractive therapeutic option for extensively drug-resistant (XDR) Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections. Colistin has been the only treatment available for these infections for many years, but its results are suboptimal. Ceftolozane-tazobactam (C/T) is a newly available therapeutic option that has shown good antipseudomonal activity, even against a number of XDR P. aeruginosa strains. However, data about combinations containing C/T are scarce. The aim of this study was to analyze the activity of C/T and colistin alone and in combination against a collection of XDR P. aeruginosa strains containing 24 representative clinical isolates from a multicentre Spanish study. Twenty-four time-kill experiments performed over 24 h were conducted in duplicate to determine the effects of colistin and C/T alone and combined. An in vitro pharmacodynamic chemostat model then was used to validate this combination against three selected XDR P. aeruginosa ST175 isolates with different susceptibility levels to C/T. Static time-kill assays demonstrated superior synergistic or additive effect for C/T plus colistin against 21 of the 24 isolates studied. In the in vitro dynamic pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) model, the C/T regimen of 2/1 g every 8 h with a steady-state concentration of 2 mg/liter colistin effectively suppressed the bacterial growth at 24 h. Additive or synergistic interactions were observed for C/T plus colistin against XDR P. aeruginosa strains and particularly against C/T-resistant strains. C/T plus colistin may be a useful treatment for XDR P. aeruginosa infections, including those caused by high risk-clones resistant to C/T.

Intrapulmonary concentrations of meropenem administered by continuous infusion in critically ill patients with nosocomial pneumonia: a randomized pharmacokinetic trial.

BACKGROUND: Optimal antimicrobial drug exposure in the lung is required for successful treatment outcomes for nosocomial pneumonia. Little is known about the intrapulmonary pharmacokinetics (PK) of meropenem when administered by continuous infusion (CI). The aim of this study was to evaluate the PK of two dosages of meropenem (3 g vs 6 g/day by CI) in the plasma and epithelial lining fluid (ELF) in critically ill patients with nosocomial pneumonia. METHODS: Thirty-one patients (81% male, median (IQR) age 72 (22) years) were enrolled in a prospective, randomized, clinical trial. Sixteen patients received 1 g/8 h and 15 2 g/8 h by CI (8 h infusion). Plasma and ELF meropenem concentrations were modeled using a population methodology, and Monte Carlo simulations were performed to estimate the probability of attaining (PTA) a free ELF concentration of 50% of time above MIC (50% fT>MIC), which results in logarithmic killing and the suppression of resistance in experimental models of pneumonia. RESULTS: The median (IQR) of meropenem AUC0-24 h in the plasma and ELF was 287.6 (190.2) and 84.1 (78.8) mg h/L in the 1 g/8 h group vs 448.1 (231.8) and 163.0 (201.8) mg h/L in the 2 g/8 h group, respectively. The penetration ratio was approximately 30% and was comparable between the dosage groups. In the Monte Carlo simulations, only the highest approved dose of meropenem of 2 g/8 h by CI allowed to achieve an optimal PTA for all isolates with a MIC < 4 mg/L. CONCLUSIONS: An increase in the dose of meropenem administered by CI achieved a higher exposure in the plasma and ELF. The use of the highest licensed dose of 6 g/day may be necessary to achieve an optimal coverage in ELF for all susceptible isolates (MIC ≤ 2 mg/L) in patients with conserved renal function. An alternative therapy should be considered when the presence of microorganisms with a MIC greater than 2 mg/L is suspected. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The trial was registered in the European Union Drug Regulating Authorities Clinical Trials Database (EudraCT-no. 2016-002796-10). Registered on 27 December 2016.

Systemic pharmacokinetics and safety of high doses of nebulized colistimethate sodium in critically ill patients with hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the pharmacokinetics of formed colistin in plasma and the safety of two different high doses of colistimethate sodium administered via nebulization in critically ill surgical patients with hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP) or ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP). PATIENTS AND METHODS: Formed colistin plasma concentrations were measured in critically ill surgical patients with pneumonia treated with two different doses of nebulized colistimethate sodium (3 MIU/8 h versus 5 MIU/8 h). Adverse events possibly related to nebulized colistimethate sodium were recorded. RESULTS: Twenty-seven patients (15 in the 3 MIU/8 h group and 12 in the 5 MIU/8 h group) were included. Colistin plasma concentrations were unquantifiable (<0.1 mg/L) in eight (53.3%) patients in the 3 MIU/8 h group and in seven patients (58.3%) in the 5 MIU/8 h group. Median (IQR) quantifiable colistin plasma concentrations before nebulization and at 1, 4 and 8 h were 0.17 (0.12-0.33), 0.20 (0.11-0.24), 0.17 (0.12-0.23) and 0.17 (0.11-0.32) mg/L, respectively, in the 3 MIU/8 h group and 0.20 (0.11-0.35), 0.24 (0.12-0.44), 0.24 (0.10-0.49) and 0.23 (0.11-0.44) mg/L, respectively, in the 5 MIU/8 h group, with no differences between the two groups at any time. Renal impairment during nebulized treatment was observed in three patients in each group, but was unlikely to be related to colistimethate sodium treatment. Nebulized colistimethate sodium therapy was well tolerated and no bronchospasms or neurotoxicity events were observed. CONCLUSIONS: In this limited observational case series of critically ill patients with HAP or VAP treated with high doses of nebulized colistimethate sodium, systemic exposure was minimal and the treatment was well tolerated.

Serum albumin is a strong predictor of sepsis outcome in elderly patients.

The incidence of sepsis is disproportionately higher in elderly adults, and age is an independent predictor of mortality. Retrospective analysis was conducted among patients admitted to the emergency department in a tertiary teaching hospital from January 2016 to June 2017. To study the prognosis determinants of sepsis among elderly patients attended in the emergency room of a tertiary care hospital. As secondary objectives, we aimed to describe the causes of sepsis, the general outcome, and the general characteristics of these patients. Two hundred thirty-five episodes data of patients admitted throughout the 15-month study period who were diagnosed with sepsis, severe sepsis or septic shock, were included. Throughout the study cohort, 51 patients (21.7%) fulfilled the criteria of severe sepsis or septic shock. All-cause mortality was 11 patients (4.7%) on day 14 and 27 (11.5%) on day 30. Prognosis factors associated with 30-day mortality were the following: albumin level < 2.6 g/dl (first quartile of the overall population), odds ratio (OR 3.26, 95% CI 12-9.41; p = 0.029), Charlson comorbidity index (OR 1.23, 95% CI 1.04-1.45; p = 0.012), C-reactive protein on admission (OR 1.04, 95% CI 0.99-1.08; p = 0.062), and non-adequacy of the initial antimicrobial therapy (OR 3.3, 95% CI 1.06-10.4; p = 0.039). Among elderly patients with sepsis, strong predictors of mortality such as albumin could be considered as part of prognosis and future potential interventions. Adequacy of antimicrobial therapy at admission must be one of the objectives in the treatment of sepsis, also in the elderly, since it is an independent predictor of mortality.

Linezolid Dosing in Patients With Liver Cirrhosis: Standard Dosing Risk Toxicity.

BACKGROUND: Limited data regarding altered linezolid pharmacokinetics in patients with liver cirrhosis are available. The objective of this study was to evaluate the pharmacokinetics, efficacy and safety of linezolid in cirrhotic patients. METHODS: A case-control 1:1 study of patients undergoing linezolid therapeutic drug monitoring was conducted between January 2015 and June 2017. Cases with liver cirrhosis were matched with controls by age, body weight, comorbidities, renal function, and intensive care unit (ICU) admission. RESULTS: Fifty-two patients were included, 26 in each group. Patients with Child-Pugh Scores A, B, and C were 1 (3.8%), 13 (50.0%), and 12 (46.2%), respectively. Cases had higher median linezolid trough plasma concentrations than controls [20.6 (17.4) versus 2.7 (11.3); P < 0.001)] and more frequently achieved an optimal pharmacodynamic index [26 (100%) versus 16 (61.5%); P = 0.002]. In addition, potentially toxic concentrations and treatment discontinuation due to overexposure and hematological toxicity were also more frequently seen in cirrhotic patients. Overall clinical cure rate was high (67.4%), and in-hospital mortality was 28.8%. No differences in clinical outcomes were observed between both groups. CONCLUSIONS: Linezolid showed a high clinical cure rate. Nevertheless, plasma concentrations and treatment discontinuation due to hematological toxicity were higher in cirrhotic patients. Liver cirrhosis may influence linezolid pharmacokinetics and question the use of standard doses. Therapeutic drug monitoring of linezolid would be valuable in these patients.

Colistin Use in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease: Are We Underdosing Patients?

Colistin is administered as its inactive prodrug colistimethate (CMS). Selection of an individualized CMS dose for each patient is difficult due to its narrow therapeutic window, especially in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Our aim was to analyze CMS use in patients with CKD. Secondary objectives were to assess the safety and efficacy of CMS in this special population. In this prospective observational cohort study of CMS-treated CKD patients, CKD was defined as the presence of a glomerular filtration rate (GFR) < 60 mL/min/m² for more than 3 months. The administered doses of CMS were compared with those recently published in the literature. Worsened CKD at the end of treatment (EOT) was evaluated with the RIFLE (Risk, Injury, Failure, Loss of kidney function, and End-stage kidney disease) criteria. Colistin plasma concentrations (Css) were measured using high-performance liquid chromatography. Fifty-nine patients were included. Thirty-six (61.2%) were male. The median age was 76 (45⁻95) years and baseline GFR was 36.6 ± 13.6. The daily mean CMS dosage used was compared with recently recommended doses (3.36 vs. 6.07; p < 0.001). Mean Css was 0.9 (0.2⁻2.9) mg/L, and Css was <2 mg/L in 50 patients (83.3%). Clinical cure was achieved in 43 (72.9%) patients. Worsened renal function at EOT was present in 20 (33.9%) patients and was reversible in 10 (52.6%). The CMS dosages used in this cohort were almost half those currently recommended. The mean achieved Css were under the recommended target of 2 mg/dL. Despite this, clinical cure rate was high. In this patient cohort, the incidence of nephrotoxicity was similar to those found in other recent studies performed in the general population and was reversible in 52.6%. These results suggest that CMS is safe and effective in patients with CKD and may encourage physicians to adjust dosage regimens to recent recommendations in order to optimize CMS treatments.

Urinary Concentrations of Colistimethate and Formed Colistin after Intravenous Administration in Patients with Multidrug-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacterial Infections.

Limited information is available on the urinary excretion of colistin in infected patients. This study aimed to investigate the pharmacokinetics of colistimethate sodium (CMS) and formed colistin in urine in patients with multidrug-resistant (MDR) Gram-negative bacterial infections. A pharmacokinetic study was conducted on 12 patients diagnosed with an infection caused by an extremely drug-resistant (XDR) P. aeruginosa strain and treated with intravenous CMS. Fresh urine samples were collected at 2-h intervals, and blood samples were collected predose (Cmin ss) and at the end of the CMS infusion (Cmax ss) for measurement of concentrations of CMS and formed colistin using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). CMS urinary recovery was determined as the summed amount of CMS and formed colistin recovered in urine for each 2-h interval divided by the CMS dose. There were 12 enrolled patients, 9 of whom were male (75%). Data [median (range)] were as follows: age, 65.5 (37 to 86) years; colistimethate urinary recovery 0 to 6 h, 42.6% (2.9% to 72.8%); range of concentrations of colistin in urine, <0.1 to 95.4 mg/liter; Cmin ss and Cmax ss of colistin in plasma, 0.9 (<0.2 to 1.4) and 0.9 (<0.2 to 1.4) mg/liter, respectively. In 6/12 (50%) patients, more than 40% of the CMS dose was recovered in the urine within the first 6 h after CMS administration. This study demonstrated rapid urinary excretion of CMS in patients within the first 6 h after intravenous administration. In all but one patient, the concentrations of formed colistin in urine were above the MIC for the most predominant isolate of P. aeruginosa in our hospital. Future studies are warranted for optimizing CMS dosage regimens in urinary tract infection (UTI) patients.

Genomics and Susceptibility Profiles of Extensively Drug-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa Isolates from Spain.

This study assessed the molecular epidemiology, resistance mechanisms, and susceptibility profiles of a collection of 150 extensively drug-resistant (XDR) Pseudomonas aeruginosa clinical isolates obtained from a 2015 Spanish multicenter study, with a particular focus on resistome analysis in relation to ceftolozane-tazobactam susceptibility. Broth microdilution MICs revealed that nearly all (>95%) of the isolates were nonsusceptible to piperacillin-tazobactam, ceftazidime, cefepime, aztreonam, imipenem, meropenem, and ciprofloxacin. Most of them were also resistant to tobramycin (77%), whereas nonsusceptibility rates were lower for ceftolozane-tazobactam (31%), amikacin (7%), and colistin (2%). Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis-multilocus sequence typing (PFGE-MLST) analysis revealed that nearly all of the isolates belonged to previously described high-risk clones. Sequence type 175 (ST175) was detected in all 9 participating hospitals and accounted for 68% (n = 101) of the XDR isolates, distantly followed by ST244 (n = 16), ST253 (n = 12), ST235 (n = 8), and ST111 (n = 2), which were detected only in 1 to 2 hospitals. Through phenotypic and molecular methods, the presence of horizontally acquired carbapenemases was detected in 21% of the isolates, mostly VIM (17%) and GES enzymes (4%). At least two representative isolates from each clone and hospital (n = 44) were fully sequenced on an Illumina MiSeq. Classical mutational mechanisms, such as those leading to the overexpression of the ß-lactamase AmpC or efflux pumps, OprD inactivation, and/or quinolone resistance-determining regions (QRDR) mutations, were confirmed in most isolates and correlated well with the resistance phenotypes in the absence of horizontally acquired determinants. Ceftolozane-tazobactam resistance was not detected in carbapenemase-negative isolates, in agreement with sequencing data showing the absence of ampC mutations. The unique set of mutations responsible for the XDR phenotype of ST175 clone documented 7 years earlier were found to be conserved, denoting the long-term persistence of this specific XDR lineage in Spanish hospitals. Finally, other potentially relevant mutations were evidenced, including those in penicillin-binding protein 3 (PBP3), which is involved in ß-lactam (including ceftolozane-tazobactam) resistance, and FusA1, which is linked to aminoglycoside resistance.

Impact of colistin plasma levels on the clinical outcome of patients with infections caused by extremely drug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

BACKGROUND: Colistin has a narrow therapeutic window with nephrotoxicity being the major dose-limiting adverse effect. Currently, the optimal doses and therapeutic plasma levels are unknown. METHODS: Prospective observational cohort study, including patients infected by colistin-susceptible P. aeruginosa treated with intravenous colistimethate sodium (CMS). Clinical data and colistin plasma levels at steady-state (Css) were recorded. The primary and secondary end points were clinical cure and 30-day all-cause mortality. RESULTS: Ninety-one patients were included. Clinical cure was observed in 72 (79%) patients. The mean (SD) Css was 1.49 (1.4) mg/L and 2.42 (1.5) mg/L (p = 0.01) in patients who achieved clinical cure and those who not, respectively. Independent risk factors for clinical failure were male sex (OR 5.88; 95% CI 1.09-31.63), APACHE II score (OR 1.15; 95% CI 1.03-1.27) and nephrotoxicity at the EOT (OR 9.13; 95% CI 95% 2.06-40.5). The 30-day mortality rate was 30.8%. Risk factors for 30-day mortality included the APACHE II score (OR 1.98; 95% CI 1-1.20), the McCabe score (OR 2.49; 95% CI 1.14-5.43) and the presence of nephrotoxicity at the end of treatment (EOT) (OR 3.8; 95% CI 1.26-11.47). CONCLUSION: In this series of patients with infections caused by XDR P. aeruginosa infections, Css is not observed to be related to clinical outcome.

Characterization and rapid control of a vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (VREF) outbreak in a renal transplant unit in Spain: The environment matters.

OBJECTIVE: To describe a clonal outbreak due to vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (VREF) in the nephrology and renal transplant unit of a tertiary teaching hospital in Barcelona, Spain, and to highlight how active patient and environment surveillance cultures, as well as prompt and directed intervention strategies, mainly environmental, helped to successfully bring it under control. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A study was conducted on patients admitted to the nephrology ward with any culture positive for VREF over a 6-month period (August 2012-January 2013). Based on the identification of a clonal link between the isolates, weekly rectal screening using swabs was implemented for all patients, as well as environmental cultures and cleaning of medical equipment and the ward. VREF isolates were identified by MicroScan and confirmed by Etest. Bacterial identification was confirmed by MALDI-TOF MS. The presence of van genes, and esp and hyl virulence genes was determined using PCR. The clonal relationship between the isolates was studied first with DiversiLab (bioMérieux), and then by PFGE-Smal and MLST. A two-tier sequence of infection control measures was implemented. RESULTS: During the study period, VREF was isolated from 13 patients. All cases were colonized with no criteria for infection. VREF isolates were also extensively recovered from the environment and medical equipment. Isolates carried the vanA gene, and were multidrug-resistant, including high-level resistance (MIC >16mg/L) to vancomycin and teicoplanin. Molecular analysis showed that all VREF isolates belonged to sequence type 17 (ST17) carrying hyl virulence genes. After implementing infection control measures in a two-tier sequence, and reinforcing particularly environmental and medical equipment cleaning, no further cases were detected in the follow-up year. CONCLUSION: A clonal outbreak of VREF-ST17 involving only colonization is reported. The prompt implementation of aggressive infection control measures in patients and the environment was effective in controlling the outbreak and avoided the potential emergence of infection among patients.

Surfactant protein A genetic variants associate with severe respiratory insufficiency in pandemic influenza A virus infection.

INTRODUCTION: Inherited variability in host immune responses influences susceptibility and outcome of Influenza A virus (IAV) infection, but these factors remain largely unknown. Components of the innate immune response may be crucial in the first days of the infection. The collectins surfactant protein (SP)-A1, -A2, and -D and mannose-binding lectin (MBL) neutralize IAV infectivity, although only SP-A2 can establish an efficient neutralization of poorly glycosylated pandemic IAV strains. METHODS: We studied the role of polymorphic variants at the genes of MBL (MBL2), SP-A1 (SFTPA1), SP-A2 (SFTPA2), and SP-D (SFTPD) in 93 patients with H1N1 pandemic 2009 (H1N1pdm) infection. RESULTS: Multivariate analysis showed that two frequent SFTPA2 missense alleles (rs1965708-C and rs1059046-A) and the SFTPA2 haplotype 1A(0) were associated with a need for mechanical ventilation, acute respiratory failure, and acute respiratory distress syndrome. The SFTPA2 haplotype 1A(1) was a protective variant. Kaplan-Meier analysis and Cox regression also showed that diplotypes not containing the 1A(1) haplotype were associated with a significantly shorter time to ICU admission in hospitalized patients. In addition, rs1965708-C (P = 0.0007), rs1059046-A (P = 0.0007), and haplotype 1A(0) (P = 0.0004) were associated, in a dose-dependent fashion, with lower PaO2/FiO2 ratio, whereas haplotype 1A(1) was associated with a higher PaO2/FiO2 ratio (P = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest an effect of genetic variants of SFTPA2 on the severity of H1N1pdm infection and could pave the way for a potential treatment with haplotype-specific (1A(1)) SP-A2 for future IAV pandemics.

[Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of ceftaroline]. / Farmacocinética y farmacodinamia de ceftarolina.

Ceftaroline is administered intravenously in the form of a prodrug, ceftaroline fosamil, which is rapidly hydrolyzed by plasma phosphatases to its active form, ceftaroline. In general, the pharmacokinetics of ceftaroline differ little from those of other cephalosporins. A proportional increase in both the peak plasma concentration (Cmax) and the area under the curve (AUC) have been observed when the drug is administered in increasing doses, which demonstrates its linear pharmacokinetics. Half the dose of ceftaroline is excreted actively through the kidneys. The pharmacokinetic parameters of ceftaroline administered through the intramuscular route in diverse animal species were similar to those observed when the drug was administered intravenously and consequently clinical research into ceftaroline administered through this alternative route would be appropriate. Patients with moderate-severe alterations of renal function and those undergoing hemodialysis require dose adjustments. There is limited experience of the pharmacokinetics of ceftaroline in children, which has given rise to several schedules stratified by age groups. The pharmacodynamics of the drug have been studied in models of animal infection and in in vitro infections caused mainly by Staphylococcus aureus (including methicillin-resistant S. aureus [MRSA], strains with intermediate vancomycin sensitivity [hVISA or hGISA]) and by Streptococcus pneumoniae strains with distinct sensitivities to penicillin. Because ceftaroline is a time-dependent antibiotic, the most widely studied pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) indicator is the time interval during which drug concentrations are maintained above the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), calculated both as total drug (T > MIC) and as free fraction of the drug (fT > MIC). The PK/PD simulations carried out in these models, developed on the basis of the concentrations obtained with routine doses in humans, have shown that ceftaroline has a good PK/PD profile against these microorganisms, including strains with reduced sensitivity to vancomycin, linezolid, and daptomycin.

Epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection and risk factors for unfavorable clinical outcomes: results of a hospital-based study in Barcelona, Spain.

Prospective hospital-based surveillance for Clostridium difficile-associated disease (CDAD) was conducted in Barcelona (Spain) to describe the epidemiology of this condition and investigate the risk factors for an unfavorable outcome. All patients diagnosed with CDAD during 2009 were included. Using logistic regression modeling, we analyzed the potential risk factors associated with recurrent and complicated CDAD, defined as a need for colectomy or death within 30 days. There were 365 episodes of CDAD, yielding an incidence of 22.5 cases/10(5) person-years, 1.22 cases/10(3) hospital discharges, and 1.93 cases/10(4) patient-days. The main PCR ribotypes identified were 241 (26%), 126 (18%), 078 (7%), and 020 (5%). PCR ribotype 027 was not detected. Among the 348 cases analyzed, 232 (67%) patients were cured, 63 (18%) had a recurrence of CDAD, and 53 (15%) developed complicated CDAD. Predictors of complicated CDAD were continued use of antibiotics following CDAD diagnosis (odds ratio [OR], 2.009; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.012 to 3.988; P = 0.046), Charlson comorbidity index score (OR, 1.265; 95% CI, 1.105 to 1.449; P = 0.001), and age (OR, 1.028; 95% CI, 1.005 to 1.053; P = 0.019). A leukocyte count of >15 × 10(3) cells/ml (OR, 2.277; 95% CI, 1.189 to 4.362; P = 0.013), continuation of proton pump inhibitor (PPI) use after CDAD diagnosis (OR, 2.168; 95% CI, 1.081 to 4.347; P = 0.029), and age (OR, 1.021; 95% CI, 1.001 to 1.041; P = 0.036) were independently associated with higher odds of recurrence. The incidence of CDAD in Barcelona during 2009 was on the lower end of the previously described range for all of Europe. Our analysis suggests that the continuation of non-C. difficile antibiotics and use of PPIs in patients diagnosed with CDAD are associated with unfavorable clinical outcomes.