Effects of Pro-Tex on zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae, adult common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and adult yellowtail kingfish (Seriola lalandi).

Aquaculture practices bring several stressful events to fish. Stressors not only activate the hypothalamus-pituitary-interrenal-axis, but also evoke cellular stress responses. Up-regulation of heat shock proteins (HSPs) is among the best studied mechanisms of the cellular stress response. An extract of the prickly pear cactus (Opuntia ficus indica), Pro-Tex, a soluble variant of TEX-OE(®), may induce expression of HSPs and reduce negative effects of cellular stress. Pro-Tex therefore is used to ameliorate conditions during stressful aquaculture-related practices. We tested Pro-Tex in zebrafish (Danio rerio), common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) and yellowtail kingfish (Seriola lalandi) exposed to aquaculture-relevant stressors (thermal stress, net confinement, transport) and assessed its effects on stress physiology. Heat shock produced a mild increase in hsp70 mRNA expression in 5-day-old zebrafish larvae. Pro-Tex increased basal hsp70 mRNA expression, but decreased heat-shock-induced expression of hsp70 mRNA. In carp, Pro-Tex increased plasma cortisol and glucose levels, while it did not affect the mild stress response (increased plasma cortisol and glucose) to net confinement. In gills, and proximal and distal intestine, stress increased hsp70 mRNA expression; in the distal intestine, an additive enhancement of hsp70 mRNA expression by Pro-Tex was seen under stress. In yellowtail kingfish, Pro-Tex reduced the negative physiological effects of transport more efficiently than when fish were sedated with AQUI-S(®). Overall, our data indicate that Pro-Tex has protective effects under high levels of stress only. As Pro-Tex has potential for use in aquaculture, its functioning and impact on health and welfare of fish should be further studied.

Physiological and behavioral responses to an electrical stimulus in Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus).

Consumer awareness of the need to improve fish welfare is increasing. Electrostunning is a clean and potentially efficient procedure more and more used to provoke loss of consciousness prior to killing or slaughtering (reviewed by Van de Vis et al. in Aquac Res 34:211-220, 2003). Little is known how (powerful) electrical stimuli, which do not stun immediately, are perceived by fish. We investigated responses of hand-held Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) to a standardized electric shock applied to the tailfin. The handling with the resulting unavoidable acute stress response was carefully controlled for. Fish responses were analyzed up to 24 h following the shock. Electric shock resulted in slightly higher levels in plasma cortisol, lactate, ionic levels, and osmolality, than handling alone. Plasma glucose had significantly increased 6 h after shock compared to handling, indicative of enhanced adrenergic activity. Mucus release from the gills, branchial Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase activity, and chloride cell migration and proliferation, parameters that will change with strong adrenergic activation, were not affected. Decreased swimming activity and delay in resumption of chafing behavior indicated a stronger and differential response toward the electric shock. Responses to handling lasted shorter compared to those to an electric shock. The differential and stronger responses to the electric shock suggest that fish perceived the shock potentially as painful.

Differential expression of PTHrP and its receptor in pituitary gland and gills in estradiol-treated gilthead sea bream (Sparus auratus, L.).

In the gilthead sea bream (Sparus auratus) 17ß-estradiol (E2) plays an important role in the synthesis of vitellogenin. During vitellogenesis, vitellogenin as a nutritional precursor protein is loaded with calcium, which requires elevated plasma calcium levels. This is accomplished via E2-dependent processes. Reports have shown that hypercalcemic effects of E2 are possibly mediated by another hypercalcemic factor, viz. parathyroid hormone related protein (PTHrP). To further investigate the possibility of PTHrP as a mediator of E2-induced hypercalcemia, we investigated the local expression levels of the pthrp mRNA and of the gene coding for the PTHrP receptor, PTH1R (pth1r) in two tissues involved in the calcium regulation (gills, pituitary gland) of the sea bream treated with E2. Compared to control, treatment with E2 resulted in: significantly increased total calcium and plasma PTHrP levels (P<0.01), a down-regulation of pthrp mRNA in the pituitary gland (P<0.01), and up-regulation of expression levels for both pthrp and pth1r in the branchial system (P<0.05). These findings provide direct evidence for a mediating role of PTHrP in E2 induced hypercalcemia, and in addition support the idea for the presence of two independent systems, an endocrine pituitary PTHrP system and a peripheral paracrine branchial PTHrP system.

PCBs and the energy cost of migration in the European eel (Anguilla anguilla L.).

The effect of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) on the energy consumption of fasting silver European eel (Anguilla anguilla L.) was studied over a 27-day period during which the animals were at rest or were swimming 800 km in Blazka swim tunnels. Three-year-old female hatchery eels (silver stage) between 73 and 80 cm long weighing around 1 kg were dosed intraperitoneally with PCBs at a nominal dosage of 10x the consumption standard as a mixture representative for planar (7 microg PCB126/kg eel), non-planar (5 mg PCB153/kg eel) and metabolizable PCBs (50 microg PCB77/kg eel) found in wild eel, or only with the vehicle (corn oil, 10 ml/kg eel). Four major observations were made: (1) PCB-exposed animals lose less weight compared to their unexposed controls; (2) PCB-concentrations on a lipid basis are 2.8-14 times higher in swimming compared to resting animals; (3) the standard metabolic rate is significantly lower in the PCB-exposed animals than in unexposed controls. In addition, PCB-exposure significantly reduces oxygen consumption during swimming, and starting at 400 km (18 days) this effect increases with time; (4) the relative spleen and liver weight significantly increased in the PCB-swim animals but not in the PCB-rest animals. The swimming animals lost about 75% more weight compared to resting animals and had about 50% lower plasma fat content. Hematocrit, haemoglobin, plasma pH, ion levels (sodium and potassium), and plasma lactate were not affected by PCB-exposure or swimming. Apparently, the current levels of PCBs and other dioxin-like compounds may seriously impair the reproduction of the European eel.

CYP27A1 expression in gilthead sea bream (Sparus auratus, L.): effects of calcitriol and parathyroid hormone-related protein.

Little is known about vitamin D metabolism in fishes. Several reports have shown hydroxylase activities in various organs to produce vitamin D metabolites, but the enzymes involved have not been isolated or characterized. We isolated and characterized a renal mitochondrial hydroxylase, CYP27A1, that governs vitamin D metabolism in gilthead sea bream, Sparus auratus. The enzyme is highly expressed in kidney and to a far lesser extent in liver. When treated with 25-hydroxy vitamin D or calcitriol, the kidney responded differentially and time dependently with CYP27A1 mRNA expression levels. This response substantiates a role for CYP27A1 in fish vitamin D metabolism. This notion is strengthened by upregulation of CYP27A1 in sea bream treated with parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP), and suggests an original role for PTHrP in calcitriol-regulated processes n fish similar to the role of PTH in mammalian vitamin D-dependent processes.

PTHrP potentiating estradiol-induced vitellogenesis in sea bream (Sparus auratus, L.).

In fish, vitellogenin is an important nutritional precursor protein produced solely in the liver and released into the blood where it binds calcium. In the gilthead sea bream (Sparus auratus) 17beta-Estradiol (E2) plays an important role in the synthesis of vitellogenin, but also the pituitary hormones prolactin (PRL) and growth hormone (GH) can stimulate vitellogenin induction in fish. Considering the emerging involvement of PTHrP in fish calcium metabolism and the importance of calcium regulation in reproduction, we investigated the possible role of PTHrP in vitellogenesis. E2-naïve and E2-primed sea bream hepatocytes were used in an in vitro primary hepatocyte culture and stimulated with a recombinant sea bream PTHrP (sbPTHrP) to establish the contribution of sbPTHrP alone or in combination with E2 to the regulation of hepatic vitellogenin synthesis. Hepatocytes stimulated solely with sbPTHrP were not affected in their vitellogenesis. However, in hepatocytes stimulated with E2 in combination with sbPTHrP a higher vitellogenin production was seen than with E2 alone. It is concluded that sbPTHrP has a potentiating effect on estradiol stimulation of vitellogenin production by sea bream hepatocytes. The sea bream provides a unique model where vitellogenesis regulation can be studied on E2-naïve liver cells, both in vivo and in vitro.

PTHrP regulation and calcium balance in sea bream (Sparus auratus L.) under calcium constraint.

Juvenile gilthead sea bream were exposed to diluted seawater (2.5 per thousand salinity; DSW) for 3 h or, in a second experiment, acclimated to DSW and fed a control or calcium-deficient diet for 30 days. Branchial Ca2+ influx, drinking rate and plasma calcium levels were assessed. Sea bream plasma parathyroid hormone related protein (sPTHrP) was measured, and mRNAs of pthrp, its main receptor, pth1r, and the calcium-sensing receptor (casr) were quantified in osmoregulatory tissues and the pituitary gland. When calcium is limited in water or diet, sea bream maintain calcium balance; however, both plasma Ca2+ and plasma sPTHrP concentrations were lower when calcium was restricted in both water and diet. Positive correlations between plasma sPTHrP and plasma Ca2+ (R2 = 0.30, N = 39, P < 0.05), and plasma sPTHrP and body mass of the fish (R2 = 0.37, N = 148, P < 0.001) were found. Immunoreactive sPTHrP was demonstrated in pituitary gland pars intermedia cells that border the pars nervosa and co-localises with somatolactin. In the pituitary gland, pthrp, pth1r and casr mRNAs were downregulated after both short- and long-term exposure to DSW. A correlation between pituitary gland pthrp mRNA expression and plasma Ca2+ (R2 = 0.71, N = 7, P < 0.01) was observed. In gill tissue, pthrp and pth1r mRNAs were significantly upregulated after 30 days exposure to DSW, whereas no effect was found for casr mRNA expression. We conclude that in water of low salinity, declining pituitary gland pthrp mRNA expression accompanied by constant plasma sPTHrP levels points to a reduced sPTHrP turnover and that sPTHrP, through paracrine interaction, is involved in the regulation of branchial calcium handling, independently of endocrine pituitary gland sPTHrP.

Effects of acetylsalicylic acid treatment on thyroid hormones, prolactins, and the stress response of tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus).

The cyclooxygenase (COX) pathway converts arachidonic acid (ArA) into prostaglandins (PGs), which interact with the stress response in mammals and possibly in fish as well. Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) is a COX inhibitor and was used to characterize the effects of PGs on the release of several hormones and the stress response of tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus). Plasma PGE2 was significantly reduced at 100 mg ASA/kg body wt, and both basal PGE2 and cortisol levels correlated negatively with plasma salicylate. Basal plasma 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3) was reduced by ASA treatment, whereas prolactin (PRL)188 increased at 100 mg ASA/kg body wt. ASA depressed the cortisol response to the mild stress of 5 min of net confinement. As expected, glucose and lactate were elevated in the stressed control fish, but the responses were blunted by ASA treatment. Gill Na+-K+-ATPase activity was not affected by ASA. Plasma osmolarity increased after confinement in all treatments, whereas sodium only increased at the high ASA dose. This is the first time ASA has been administered to fish in vivo, and the altered hormone release and the inhibition of the acute stress response indicated the involvement of PGs in these processes.