Theory-of-Mind Development in Young Deaf Children With Early Hearing Provisions.

Deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children born to hearing parents have profound theory-of-mind (ToM) delays, yet little is known about how providing hearing assistance early in life, through cochlear implants and hearing aids, influences their ToM development. We thus addressed (a) whether young DHH children with early hearing provision developed ToM differently than older children did in previous research and (b) what ToM understandings characterize this understudied population. Findings from 84 three- to six-year-old DHH children primarily acquiring spoken language demonstrated that accumulated hearing experience influenced their ToM, as measured by a five-step ToM scale. Moreover, language abilities mediated this developmental relationship: Children with more advanced language abilities, because of more time using cochlear implants and hearing aids, had better ToM growth. These findings demonstrate the crucial relationships among hearing, language, and ToM for DHH children acquiring spoken language, thereby addressing theoretical and practical questions about ToM development.

Assessing aspects of creativity in deaf and hearing high school students.

To address the paucity of current research on the development of creativity in deaf students, and to extend existing research to adolescents, the present study investigated divergent thinking, a method of assessing creativity, in both deaf and hearing adolescents. We assessed divergent thinking in two domains, figural and verbal, while also adjusting the instructional method in written format, sign language, or spoken English. Deaf students' performance was equal to, or more creative than, hearing students on the figural assessment of divergent thinking, but less creative on the verbal assessment. Additional studies should be conducted to determine whether this was an anomalous finding or one that might contribute to hypotheses yielding effective interventions.

Interpersonal Trauma and Posttraumatic Stress in Autistic Adults.

Background: Many autistic adults report interpersonal traumas (IPTs) such as physical or sexual assault, which are often associated with posttraumatic stress and dissociation. Factors such as gender might make autistic individuals particularly vulnerable to experiencing IPT and negative posttraumatic symptoms. Methods: In this study, 687 self-identified autistic adults completed an online survey on their traumatic experiences and mental health symptoms. Results: Seventy-two percent of participants reported experiencing sexual assault, other unwanted or uncomfortable sexual experiences, or physical assault. Forty-four percent of participants met the criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), including 50% of those who had experienced IPT and 28% of those who had not (odds ratio = 2.50; 95% confidence interval 1.74-3.60). IPT was also significantly associated with higher levels of psychoform (p < 0.001) and somatoform (p < 0.001) dissociation. Autistic cisgender women and gender minorities experienced a significantly higher number of traumas (p = 0.004) and were significantly more likely than cisgender men to experience sexual IPT (p < 0.001) and meet the criteria for PTSD (p < 0.001). There were no significant differences between autistic individuals with and without a professional autism spectrum disorder (ASD) diagnosis. Conclusions: IPT is associated with potentially severe mental health outcomes for autistic adults. Autistic women and gender minorities may be particularly vulnerable to sexual IPT and adverse outcomes. Increased screening for a history of IPT and posttraumatic symptoms is recommended for all autistic adults regardless of ASD diagnosis status. Lay summary: Why was this study done?: Many autistic people experience interpersonal traumas (IPTs) such as sexual or physical assault. These can lead to mental health challenges such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or dissociation (a disconnection between individuals and aspects of their perceptions or sense of self). We wanted to better understand what might make autistic adults more likely to experience trauma and how it affects them.What was the purpose of this study?: The purpose was to understand what might make autistic people more at risk of experiencing IPT and PTSD. We also wanted to know if IPT is associated with a higher risk of PTSD or dissociation.What did the researchers do?: Six hundred eighty-seven autistic adults filled out an online survey about their traumatic experiences, PTSD symptoms, and dissociation symptoms. We analyzed their responses to see how often participants reported experiencing different types of trauma and whether they met the criteria for PTSD and clinical dissociation. We then compared trauma experiences and PTSD rates across genders and those with and without a professional autism spectrum disorder (ASD) diagnosis and compared PTSD rates and dissociation rates across participants who had versus had not experienced IPT.What were the results of the study?: Seventy-two percent of autistic adults in this study reported having experienced sexual assault, another unwanted sexual experience, or physical assault. Almost half (44%) met the criteria for PTSD. Most participants (93%) also reported high levels of mind-based dissociation, and 32% reported high levels of body-based dissociation (dissociation that causes negative emotions to be experienced as physical problems such as headaches or trouble moving). Participants who had experienced IPT were almost twice as likely to meet the criteria for PTSD and scored higher on both measures of dissociation. Cisgender women and gender minorities were more likely to experience IPT and meet the criteria for PTSD than cisgender men. Participants with and without a professional ASD diagnosis did not differ.What do these findings add to what was already known?: Most previous research on trauma and PTSD for autistic people was done on children and did not look at IPT specifically or compare people based on their gender or ASD diagnosis. As far as we know, this is the first study on posttraumatic dissociation in autistic adults.What are potential weaknesses in the study?: The findings of this study may not apply to autistic adults as a whole. People who could have participated may not have been interested in the topic, may not have seen study advertisements and so been unaware of the study, or may not have had the time or energy to participate. Findings might have been different if different groups of autistic people participated more.How will these findings help autistic adults now or in the future?: If professionals who help autistic people do not talk to them about trauma, traumatized autistic adults may not get the right support. This study could encourage professionals to screen more autistic people, especially women and gender minorities, for trauma.