Facilitators and Barriers to Shared Decision-Making Communication Between Latina Mothers and Pediatric Mental Healthcare Providers.

This study assessed communication factors influencing shared decision-making (SDM) between language-congruent clinicians and Latina mothers of pediatric mental health patients. The sample comprised Latinx youth up to 22 years old who were enrolled in mental healthcare and attended mental health-related sessions with their parent. One hundred transcripts depicting mental health visits were coded using the Conversation Analysis framework. Coding included inductive coding that came from analyzing the structure, or orderliness, of the visits and content discussed that affects SDM. Thematic qualitative analysis revealed that facilitators to SDM included collaborative engagement, parents being active in tailoring session content, and integrating the preferences, roles, and next steps for treatment among all participants. Barriers included unskilled interpersonal interactions undermining rapport, off-topic conversations becoming the session's focus, poor time management, and irregularly integrating parent/patient preferences into the clinician's decisions regarding the child's treatment. Additionally, visit content, structure, tone, and interpersonal engagement were factors that variably facilitated or served as barriers to patient participation in SDM and were integral to collaborative, family-centered care. These findings delineated characteristics of pediatric mental health conversations and identified areas to strengthen communication between parents, patients, and clinicians to shift toward more effective SDM and improve patient outcomes among Latinx families.

Proactive coping with discrimination: A mediator between ethnic-racial socialization and Latinx youth's internalizing symptoms.

There is a dearth of knowledge in the coping literature on how minoritized youth cope with racism-related stressors and the predictors of effective coping responses. This two-wave study examined the direct and indirect effects of ethnic-racial socialization on depressive and anxiety symptoms via proactive coping with discrimination in a community sample of 135 Latinx adolescents (Mage = 16, SD = 1.27; 59% female). Results indicate that cultural socialization was related to higher use of proactive coping with discrimination 6 months later, which in turn, was related to fewer depressive and anxiety symptoms. There were no direct or indirect effects between preparation for bias and mental health outcomes.

Language proficiency and ethnic-racial orientation among Latine mother-adolescent dyads.

Language proficiencies have implications for how parents and children can communicate effectively and how culture and heritage can be transferred across generations. Previous research has sought to understand the relationship between parent language (mainstream, heritage) proficiencies and the ethnic-racial orientation of their children, though prior studies have not investigated the relationship between child language proficiencies and parent ethnic-racial orientation. This study examined the actor-partner effects of Latine mother-child dyads (N = 175; youth mean age = 12.86 years) regarding their proficiencies in English and Spanish and their Latine and White orientations. Our results revealed that youth Spanish language proficiency was positively linked to youth White orientation, and youth English proficiency was also positively associated with youth White orientation but only in instances when youth-reported acculturation conflict was lower or average. There were two partner effects observed, with youth English proficiency positively relating to mother's White orientation and mothers' Spanish proficiency being negatively related to youth White orientation. Regarding Latine orientation, both English and Spanish were positively related to greater Latine orientation for both mothers and their children. However, at higher levels of mother-reported acculturation conflict, higher mother English proficiency was related to lower youth Latine orientation. Overall, language proficiencies for Latine mothers and their children contribute to the development of bicultural orientations, though varying degrees of acculturation conflict can have differential impacts on these linkages.

Parental ethnic-racial socializations messages direct and indirect associations with shift-and-persist coping among minoritized American adolescents.

OBJECTIVES: The current cross-sectional study examined whether parental cultural socialization, preparation for bias messages, and adolescents' ethnic-racial identity (ERI) were associated with shift-and-persist coping strategy characterized by reappraising and accepting uncontrollable stressors (e.g., discrimination, poverty) while maintaining purpose and a positive future orientation. METHOD: Participants were 367 diverse ethnically/racially minoritized (42.2% Black, 25.9% Latinx, 16.1% Asian/Asian American, 12.5% multiracial, 3.3% from other groups) adolescents (Mage = 15.85, SD = 1.17, 68.9% girls). Structural equation models examined the direct effects of parental cultural socialization and preparation for bias messages on youth's ERI and shift-and-persist, as well as the indirect effects of socialization messages on shift-and-persist. RESULTS: Preparation for bias and cultural socialization were directly related to a stronger ERI for adolescents, but only cultural socialization was directly associated with greater shift-and-persist. Stronger ERI was associated with greater shift-and-persist, and both cultural socialization and preparation for bias were indirectly associated with greater shift-and-persist. CONCLUSIONS: Frequent parental preparation for bias may be indirectly associated with minoritized adolescent's shift-and-persist coping, whereas cultural socialization impacts youth's shift-and-persisting both directly and indirectly. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Cultural stress and critical consciousness among Latinx adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: To examine how cultural stressors (ethnic-racial discrimination, immigration-related threat, and COVID-19 stress) influence critical reflection, motivation, and action among Latinx adolescents and whether parental preparation for bias moderates these relations. METHOD: One hundred thirty-five Latinx adolescents (Mage = 16, 59.3% female, 85.2% U.S.-born) completed online surveys at two time points, 6 months apart. RESULTS: Immigration-related threat was associated with greater Time 1 (T1) critical reflection (ß = .31, p < .05) and Time 2 (T2) critical motivation (ß = .24, p < .01). Preparation for bias moderated the relation between immigration-related threat and T1 critical action (ß = .18, p < .01). COVID-19 stress was associated with greater T1 critical motivation (ß = .24, p < .01) and T2 critical action (ß = .18, p = .01). CONCLUSIONS: Cultural stressors may alert Latinx youth to systemic injustices in the United States, and combined with parental messages, may empower youth to address inequities. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Critical consciousness and anti-racist action as rooted in family processes.

Racially ethnically marginalized communities in the United States are exposed to structural and interpersonal forms of racism that have harmful effects on their health, wealth, education, and employment (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Racism and Health. https://www.cdc.gov/minorityhealth/racism-disparities/index.html, 2021). Although a plethora of research exists outlining these harmful effects, research examining how youth from diverse backgrounds effectively combat racism is lacking. Emerging research demonstrates that families may play a key role in the development of critical consciousness and participation in anti-racist actions (Bañales et al., Journal of Social Issues, 2021, 77, 964; Blanco Martinez et al., American Journal of Community Psychology, 2022, 70, 278; Lozada et al., Journal of Black Psychology, 2017, 43, 493). Yet, many key family processes have not been examined in relation to youth development of anti-racist practices. The current study included a sample of 327 racially ethnically diverse emerging adults (Mage = 18.80, SD = 1.28, range = 18-25), and explored the association between ethnic-racial socialization (cultural socialization, preparation for bias) and youth critical consciousness (reflection, motivation, action) and anti-racist (interpersonal, communal, political change) actions, and how familism values impact these associations. Results found that ethnic-racial socialization was positively associated with all aspects of critical consciousness and anti-racist actions. Results also found that familism significantly interacted with ethnic-racial socialization to predict some aspects of critical consciousness and anti-racist actions, but not others. Implications of the findings and future research directions are discussed.

Ethnic-racial identity and ethnic-racial socialization competency: How minoritized parents "walk the talk".

OBJECTIVES: Ethnic-racial identity (ERI) has important implications for individual psychosocial functioning as well as familial processes. For example, parents' ERI can shape children's developmental contexts through ethnic-racial socialization (ERS). Yet, existing research has tended to focus on the content or frequency of socialization messages themselves rather than on internal factors like socialization competence. Such competence, as reflected through confidence, skills, and stress, represents critical dimensions that permeate the socialization process and can impact the delivery of messages. The present study examines whether parents' ERI (i.e., private regard, centrality, exploration) is related to perceptions of their socialization competence. METHOD: Data from 203 Black, 194 Asian American, and 188 Latinx parents (N = 585, Mage = 44.46 years, SD = 9.14, 59.70% mothers) of adolescents between the ages of 10-18 were collected via Qualtrics panels. RESULTS: Across all parents, private regard, centrality, and ethnic-racial exploration were positively associated with perceived confidence and skills in engaging in ERS. Regard was additionally associated with lower socialization stress. CONCLUSIONS: The results point to consistent benefits of ERI in helping parents navigate ERS, furthering the understanding of ERI's developmental implications through parents' comfort with and ability to "walk the talk" with their children. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Shift-&-Persist and discrimination predicting depression across the life course: An accelerated longitudinal design using MIDUSI-III.

Life course theorists posit that sensitive periods exist during life span development where risk and protective factors may be particularly predictive of psychological outcomes relative to other periods in life. While there have been between-cohort studies trying to examine differences in discrimination and depressive symptoms, these studies have not been designed to identify these sensitive periods, which are best modeled by examining intra-individual change across time. To identify sensitive periods where discrimination and shift-&-persist (S&P) - a coping strategy that may protect against the negative impact of discrimination - are most strongly predictive of depressive symptoms, we employed latent growth curve modeling using an accelerated longitudinal design to track intra-individual change in depressive symptoms from ages 20-69. Participants were 3,685 adults measured at three time points ~10 years apart from the Midlife in the United States study (Mage = 37.93, SD = 6.948 at Wave I). Results identified two sensitive periods in development where high levels of S&P interacted with discrimination to protect against depressive symptoms; during the 30s and a lagged effect where 40's S&P protected against depressive symptoms when participants were in their 50s. Implications for the life course study of discrimination, coping, and depression are discussed.

Shift and Persist in Mexican American Youth: A Longitudinal Test of Depressive Symptoms.

This paper tested whether shift-&-persist coping, or coping involving the combination of cognitive reappraisal, acceptance, and optimism (Chen & Miller, Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2012, 7, 135), attenuates the risks presented by economic hardship and ethnic discrimination for change in depressive symptoms from 9th to 12th grade, in a sample of 674 Mexican American youth (Mage W1 = 10.86; 50% female; 72% US born) and whether this effect depends on ethnic pride. Structural equation modeling indicated that, when accounting for economic hardship, shift-&-persist was associated with fewer concurrent depression symptoms. Youth with lower ethnic pride who endorsed high levels of shift-&-persist were protected against the negative impacts of peer ethnic discrimination on depressive symptoms. Future research on ethnic discrimination should examine patterns of coping and identity that can mitigate risk.

Examining the promotive versus the protective impact of culturally informed shift-&-persist coping in the context of discrimination, anxiety, and health behaviors.

This study aims to better understand how racially/ethnically minoritized youth exhibit adaptive psychological functioning (less anxiety) and health behaviors (better sleep and less binge drinking) in the context of discrimination, ethnic-racial identity and coping. Among 364 minoritized emerging adults (Mage = 18.79, 85.2% female), we utilized higher-order factor analysis to examine how culturally informed shift-&-persist (S&P), a higher-order construct explaining associations between coping factors (shift, persist, spiritually based coping, civic engagement), and ethnic-racial identity were related to anxiety, binge drinking, and sleep in the context of discrimination. Culturally informed S&P promoted better sleep and less anxiety controlling for discrimination. No significant effects were observed for binge drinking and no moderated effects were observed across outcomes. The harmful effect of discrimination on sleep was intensified for those with stronger ethnic-racial identities. The promotive and potentially protective effects of culturally informed S&P coping differs across mental health and health behavior outcomes.

A person-centered analysis of ethnic-racial socialization patterns and their identity correlates in multiracial college students.

OBJECTIVES: Little is understood about how Multiracial individuals are socialized around race and ethnicity, and how these socialization messages are related to ethnic-racial identity development. METHOD: This study utilizes a person-centered framework with a diverse sample of 286 Multiracial college students to examine the patterns of ethnic-racial socialization messages individuals received from their primary caregiver. RESULTS: A latent profile analysis of caregivers' socialization messages produced a four-profile solution: Typical Messages (socialization messages with average frequency), Minority Messages (frequent cultural socialization and preparation for bias geared toward minority group membership), High Mistrust (frequent promotion of mistrust messages), and Low Frequency (all socialization messages at low frequency). Overall, profile differences were evident with respect to ethnic-racial identity endorsement, where participants in the Minority Messages profile endorsed the greatest levels of ethnic/racial exploration. In addition, individuals in the Minority Messages profile also endorsed higher levels of ethnic/racial identity resolution and affirmation than the High Mistrust and Low Frequency Messages profile. Individuals in the High Mistrust profile endorsed greater levels of identity conflict than the Minority Messages profile. CONCLUSIONS: The current study provides evidence that the pattern of socialization messages Multiracial participants received growing up impact their ethnic-racial identity endorsement. Results highlight the need for continued quantitative and person-centered work when studying socialization and identity in Multiracials. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Culturally informed shift-&-persist: A higher-order factor model and prospective associations with discrimination and depressive symptoms.

OBJECTIVES: Based on the conceptual overlap between shift-&-persist (S&P) and culturally based strategies (critical civic engagement [CCE] and spiritually based coping), this study tests whether associations between these three previously disparate strategies are attributable to the existence of a higher-order coping construct: culturally informed S&P. METHODS: Among 364 diverse minoritized youth (Mage = 18.79, 85.2% female), we tested for the existence of this higher-order factor through confirmatory factor analysis. RESULTS: We found theoretical and empirical support for the existence of a higher-order factor structure and for our higher-order factor-culturally informed S&P. Culturally informed S&P promotes fewer depressive symptoms as a main effect in addition to completely protecting against the negative impact of discrimination on depressive symptoms when culturally informed S&P is high. CONCLUSIONS: The current study illustrates relations between three previously distinct coping strategies through their association with culturally informed S&P. Results highlight culturally informed S&P's promotive and protective effects in the face of ethnic-racial discrimination. Implications for subsequent study of culturally based coping are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Differentiating Pathways between Ethnic-Racial Identity and Critical Consciousness.

Critical consciousness is one way in which minoritized youth can resist oppression and move towards sociopolitical change, but little is known about how it evolves alongside developmentally-relevant assets such as ethnic-racial identity. Among 367 ethnically-racially diverse youth (Mage = 15.85, 68.9% female, 85% U.S-born), links between multiple identity constructs (oppressed minority identity, centrality, public regard) and critical consciousness (reflection, motivation, action) were examined using structural equation modeling. Oppressed minority ideology and centrality were associated with more reflection, more motivation, but less critical action. In contrast, public regard was associated with less reflection, less motivation, but more action. The results suggest that different identity processes should be cultivated to help promote these largely independent dimensions of critical consciousness. Further implications of the findings and ideas for future research are discussed.

Discrimination, Skin Color Satisfaction, and Adjustment among Latinx American Youth.

Race-related biases and discrimination and easily observable race-related characteristics, such as skin color, appear to go hand and hand, but it remains unclear how these factors work together to shape youth development. The current study addresses this gap by investigating skin color satisfaction as a mediator between perceptions of discrimination and adjustment. Data are from a cross-sectional sample of Latinx youth (N = 175; Mage = 12.86; 51.4% female; 86.9% US-born) who completed measures of foreigner-based objectification, peer discrimination, adult discrimination, self-esteem, depressive symptoms, and the importance or value attributed to academic success. Evidence of significant indirect effects of skin color satisfaction in the links between foreigner-based objectification and self-esteem as well as academic importance was found. Skin color satisfaction did not mediate links between either peer or adult discrimination and self-esteem, depression, and academic importance. The results provide support that being perceived as a foreigner has negative implications for Latinx youth adjustment through skin color satisfaction. The present study expands understanding of how different forms of differential treatment may affect minoritized youth. Implications and future research ideas are discussed.

Latent Profiles of Discrimination and Socialization Predicting Ethnic Identity and Well-Being Among Asian American Adolescents.

Ethnic identity is rooted in sociocultural processes, but little is known about how social interactions predict its longitudinal changes. Using data from 154 Asian American adolescents, latent profile analysis derived four typologies based on unfair treatment (i.e., discrimination, model minority stereotyping) and ethnic socialization (i.e., cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust): Low Cultural Salience, High Cultural Salience with Marginalization, Culturally Prepared with Low Mistrust, and High Mistrust/Discrimination. Few gender or generational differences in profile membership were found. Positive outcomes were linked to adolescents attuned to both positive and negative experiences, Culturally Prepared with Low Mistrust, who reported increases in ethnic belonging and decreases in negative emotions. The implications for identity formation and adjustment are discussed.

Foreigner objectification, English proficiency, and adjustment among youth and mothers from Latinx American backgrounds.

OBJECTIVES: Understanding the experience of foreigner objectification is relevant given the possibility of ethnocentrism, xenophobia, and mistrust of immigrants in the United States. The present study examines main and interactive effects of objectification and English proficiency on developmental outcomes among immigrant mothers and children. METHOD: Our study includes 173 youth from Latinx backgrounds (52% female, Mage = 12.86 years, SD = .68; 87% United States-born) and their mothers (Mage = 38.26 SD = 5.65; all foreign-born) from emerging immigrant contexts. RESULTS: Bivariate and regression analyses suggest that lower English proficiency was associated with more objectification for youth; whereas higher English proficiency was associated with more objectification for mothers. For youth only, English proficiency was positively correlated with American identity. For both parents and youth, foreigner objectification was linked with negative psychological outcomes (e.g., mothers' depressive symptoms, youths' low self-esteem). CONCLUSIONS: Being subjected to assumptions that challenge individuals' social status can be psychologically harmful. Nuanced developmental variation, and implications regarding the dual role of objectification and English proficiency are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Depressive symptoms in Latina mothers in an emerging immigrant community.

OBJECTIVES: Latina mothers in emerging immigrant communities experience heightened risk for depressive symptoms because of the convergence of multiple risk factors rooted in economic, cultural, and familial experiences. Previous research with Latina/o adolescents has found that discrimination, and not acculturative stress, predicts depressive symptoms; however, no research to our knowledge has examined the relative impact of both discrimination and acculturative stress in Latina mothers. METHOD: The present study expands this literature by examining how both universal (i.e., economic hardship and parent-child conflict) and cultural stressors (i.e., discrimination and acculturative-based family conflict) predict maternal depressive symptoms in a sample of 169 Latina mothers in an emerging immigrant context. RESULTS: Results found that the presence of universal stressors for Latina mothers does indeed significantly predict depressive symptoms, and that uniquely, 1 type of cultural stressor (i.e., acculturative-based family conflict) predicts depressive symptoms above and beyond the universal stressors. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that it is important to examine how cultural stressors may have differential impact for youth and their parents; thus, more work should examine the impact of acculturative-based family conflict for Latina mothers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Ethnic-racial socialization in Latino families: The influence of mothers' socialization practices on adolescent private regard, familism, and perceived ethnic-racial discrimination.

OBJECTIVES: Cultural value endorsement and ethnic-racial identity promote Latino/a adolescent positive adaptation and mitigate the negative impacts of perceived ethnic-racial discrimination. This study explored the intergenerational process of how adolescents develop these cultural characteristics in concert with their experiences of discrimination, focusing on the role of youth-reported maternal ethnic-racial socialization processes. METHOD: Participants included 175 Latino/a adolescent-mother dyads recruited from the 7th and 8th grades in an understudied emerging immigrant destination. We tested the effects of maternal cultural characteristics (i.e., familism, private regard, and perceived discrimination) on the same adolescent outcomes through youth-reported maternal ethnic-racial socialization practices (i.e., cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust, and familism socialization, a novel construct introduced in this study). RESULTS: Three significant indirect pathways were identified. Higher maternal private regard was associated with both higher youth familism and higher youth private regard through greater youth-reported familism socialization, and higher maternal private regard was associated with more perceived youth discrimination through greater youth-reported preparation for bias. CONCLUSION: Our results highlight maternal private regard as particularly important for understanding how youth perceptions of socialization processes encourage the development of adolescent cultural characteristics and the benefit of using specific assessment tools, such as a familism socialization measure, to identify how ethnic-racial socialization processes serve as intergenerational links. Directions for future research and implications for intervention are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Protective and Promotive Effects of Latino Early Adolescents' Cultural Assets Against Multiple Types of Discrimination.

Given adversity associated with discrimination, it is important to identify culturally relevant factors that may protect against its harmful effects. Using latent variable interactions, this study examined the moderating effects of cultural assets on the association between multiple types of discrimination and adolescents' adjustment. Participants included 174 seventh- and eighth-grade Latino adolescents (51% girls); majority were of Mexican origin. Peer discrimination was associated with higher internalizing symptoms, whereas cultural assets predicted higher academic motivation above and beyond racial-ethnic discrimination, demonstrating a promotive effect. Adolescents' Latino cultural assets also protected against higher levels of externalizing symptoms in the context of high peer discrimination and foreigner objectification. The discussion focuses on the conceptual and applied implications of these findings.

The Intersection of Racial-Ethnic Socialization and Adolescence: A Closer Examination at Stage-Salient Issues.

The literature on parental racial-ethnic socialization (RES) has established the multiple protective effects of RES on developmental outcomes. Although the majority of this literature examines RES processes in adolescence, with the exception of identity processes this literature has not specifically tackled how these messages intersect with specific adolescent developmental processes. We review the literature on RES processes in non-White adolescents with a focus on the parent-adolescent relationship, risk-taking behaviors, romantic relationships, and different contexts (i.e., extracurricular, work, and social media settings). We propose that developmental science needs to account for how parental RES may not only change in adolescence, but in particular responds to the perceived risks associated with this developmental period and interacts with normative developmental tasks and milestones.