Temporal and spatial heterogeneity in milk and immune-related gene expression during mammary gland involution in dairy cows.

The aim of this study was to investigate heterogeneity in tissue morphology, milk protein and immune-related gene expression, and apoptosis of epithelial cells in the lactating and involuting mammary glands of the dairy cow. Mammary tissue from different regions of the gland (alveolar, cisternal, and peripheral) was collected postmortem from nonpregnant, pasture-fed, Holstein-Friesian primiparous cows in mid-lactation that were killed at different time points postmilking: 0, 6, 12, 18, 24, 36, and 72 h (n = 6 per time point). The CSN1NS1 and LALBA mRNA was decreased in alveolar, cisternal, and peripheral tissue by 12 to 36 h postmilking. In contrast, lactoferrin (LF) and mammary serum amyloid A3 (M-SAA3) mRNA was increased in these regions by 36 to 72 h. During lactation, more variability was present in gene expression in alveolar tissue between cows and between quarters within a cow, than within quarters. Histological analysis indicated the alveolar tissue from lactating cows was mostly uniform in structure; however, in situ hybridization indicated that although most of the alveolar tissue expressed milk proteins, the level of expression varied within and between alveoli. This heterogeneity became more pronounced with involution and with increasing regions of alveoli expressing lactoferrin, indicating that alveoli enter involution asynchronously. The peripheral and cisternal tissue had more variability in gene expression between cows compared with the alveolar tissue. The M-SAA3 signal was more intense in the cisternal tissue and less intense than the peripheral compartment compared with LF particularly in the earlier time points. In addition, between cows within the later time points, differences were observed in tissue morphology, the levels of milk protein and immune-related gene expression, and phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 5-P and STAT3-P proteins, and degree of apoptosis, indicating that involution of the mammary gland occurs at different rates between cows. Understanding the mechanisms initiating the process of involution of the mammary gland provides an opportunity for enhancing milk production of the dairy cow.

Primary cilia distribution and orientation during involution of the bovine mammary gland.

The regulation of mammary gland involution occurs through multiple levels including environmental factors, hormones, and local intramammary signals. Primary cilia (PC) are signaling organelles that sense biochemical and biophysical extracellular stimuli and are vital for cellular and tissue function. The aim of this study was to examine the distribution, incidence, and orientation of PC. Furthermore, we determined changes in expression levels of the signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)6 at the onset of bovine mammary gland involution. Mammary tissue was collected from pasture-fed, primiparous, nonpregnant Friesian dairy cows at mid lactation (n=5 per group) killed 6-h after milking (lactating controls) and during involution after 7 and 28 d of nonmilking (NM). Fluorescent immunohistochemistry and confocal microscopy of tissue sections showed that PC were present on luminal secretory epithelial cells (SEC), myoepithelial cells (MEC), and stromal fibroblast cells (SFC). Furthermore, in all 3 experimental groups, different PC positions or orientations relative to the cell surface were identified on SEC and MEC, which projected toward the lumen and were either straight, bent, or deflected against the apical cell surface, whereas PC in SFC were confined to the interalveolar space. However, by 28-d NM, fewer PC projected into the luminal space and most appeared deflected or projected toward the interalveolar space. Furthermore, by 28-d NM, with the increase in stromal connective tissue, more PC were detected within the interalveolar and interlobular stroma. At 28-d NM, we observed a decrease in luminal cilia relative to the total number of cilia. The number of ciliated cells in the total fraction (SEC, MEC, and SFC) was the same for all 3 groups, although in the luminal fraction (SEC and MEC), PC per nuclei increased by 28-d NM relative to lactation. At all 3 stages, we detected variations in shape and orientation of PC within the same alveolus, with some PC projecting directly into lumen, whereas others appeared to be bent or deflected flat against the cell surface. Within each treatment, the average number of bent cilia was low, whereas the average number of deflected cilia was higher than the average number of cilia projecting directly into the lumen. Quantitative real-time reverse transcription PCR analysis showed that expression levels of milk protein genes (αS1-casein, α-lactalbumin, and κ-casein) declined and that of lactoferrin increased in the involuted mammary tissue following NM, compared with lactating controls. Although STAT6 mRNA levels did not change following NM, STAT6 protein levels did increase following 28-d NM compared with the control lactation group. In conclusion, PC were detected in all cell types in the mammary gland, and changes in orientation during involution suggest the potential for PC to play a role in signal transduction through both mechanosensation and chemosensation. Furthermore, the STAT6-mediated signaling pathway may have a role during involution of the mammary gland.

Cell survival signaling in the bovine mammary gland during the transition from lactation to involution.

In dairy cows, mammary gland involution, and thus a decline in milk production, occurs following peak lactation. To examine the cell signaling pathways regulating involution of the mammary gland, signal transducer and activator of transcription factors (STAT5 and 3), suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS1-3 and CIS), insulin-like growth factors (IGF1 and 2), and protein kinase B (Akt) were examined. Mammary involution was induced by termination of milking, and alveolar tissue was collected from 52 nonpregnant, primiparous, mid-lactation Holstein-Friesian cows killed at 0, 6, 12, 18, 24, 36, 72, and 192h postmilking. Qualitative immunohistochemistry showed that activated (phosphorylated) STAT5-P was localized in nuclei of mammary epithelial cells at the early time points, with detection levels decreasing by 24h postmilking. In contrast, STAT3-P was barely detectable at the early time points, with detection levels increasing following longer postmilking periods. This was supported by Western analysis, which showed a decline in STAT5 and STAT5-P protein levels by 24h postmilking, no change in STAT3 levels, and an increase in STAT3-P protein (barely detectable at the early time points) by 72h postmilking. Quantitative real-time reverse transcription PCR analysis showed SOCS1 and SOCS3 mRNA increased by 72h postmilking compared with 6h postmilking. The SOCS2 mRNA remained unchanged across the time series, whereas CIS decreased by 18h postmilking and remained lower compared with that at 6h postmilking until 72h postmilking. The IGF1 mRNA increased by 192h postmilking, whereas IGF2 mRNA decreased by 18h postmilking compared with 6h postmilking. The IGFBP5 mRNA and protein levels of Akt and Akt-P remained unchanged over the time series. These results show that reciprocal activation of STAT5 and STAT3 occurs at the onset of mammary gland involution in the bovine, albeit at a slower rate than in rodents. Mathematical modeling of the pathways indicated that activated STAT3 could block the STAT5 pathway by upregulating SOCS3. The regulation of IGF1-Akt signaling suggests that by 192h postmilking in dairy cows, the involution process is still in the reversible phase, with quiescent mammary epithelial cells not yet in the senescent phase.

The effects of milking frequency in early lactation on milk yield, mammary cell turnover, and secretory activity in grazing dairy cows.

In dairy cows, short-term changes of milking frequency in early lactation have been shown to produce an immediate and a long-term effect on milk yield in stall-fed cows. The effect is controlled locally within mammary glands and could be a function of either secretory mammary epithelial cell number or activity. To resolve this and determine its applicability in other feed management systems, a unilateral milking frequency experiment was conducted with udder halves of 17 multiparous, pasture-fed dairy cows milked either 4 times (4×) or once a day (1×) for 14d from 5±2d in milk. Mean half-udder milk yield during the treatment period was higher from the 4× compared with 1× udder halves and continued to be higher until 200d in milk once returned to twice a day milking. Mammary biopsies were obtained on d 14 of treatment from both udder halves of 10 cows. Proliferation of mammary cells was higher in 4× udder halves compared with 1×, whereas no difference in apoptosis levels was detected. Abundance of αS1-casein, ß-casein, α-lactalbumin, and ß-lactoglobulin mRNA was higher in tissue samples from 4× udder halves compared with 1×, whereas lactoferrin mRNA abundance was lower in 4× udder halves. In summary, change in milking frequency during early lactation affects proliferation of mammary cells as well as expression of the major milk protein genes, which both contribute to the observed changes in milk yield during and after unilateral milking frequency treatment.

The effects of milking frequency on insulin-like growth factor I signaling within the mammary gland of dairy cows.

In dairy cows, short-term changes in milking frequency (MF) in early lactation have been shown to produce both an immediate and a long-term effect on milk yield. The effect of MF on milk yield is controlled locally within mammary glands and could be a function of changes in either number or activity of secretory mammary epithelial cells (MEC). Insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) signaling is one candidate factor that could mediate these effects, as it can be controlled locally within mammary glands. Both MEC number and activity can be affected by IGF-I signaling by activating the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt and extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 pathways. To investigate the relationship between MF and IGF-I signaling, udder halves of 17 dairy cows were milked either 4 times a day (4×) or once a day (1×) for 14 d in early lactation. On d 14, between 3 and 5 h following milking, mammary biopsies were obtained from 10 cows from both udder halves, and changes in the expression of genes associated with IGF-I signaling and the activation of the PI3K/Akt and ERK1/2 pathways were measured. The mRNA abundance of IGF type I receptor, IGF binding protein (IGFBP)-3, and IGFBP-5 were lower following 4× milking relative to 1× milking. However, the mRNA abundance of IGF-I was not affected by MF. Both IGFBP3 and IGFBP5 are thought to inhibit IGF-I; therefore, decreases in their mRNA abundance may serve to stimulate the IGF-I signal in the 4×-milked mammary gland. The activation of PI3K/Akt pathway was lower in response to 4× milking relative to 1×, and the activation of the ERK1/2 was unaffected by MF, suggesting that they do not mediate the effects of MF.

The effect of milking reinitiation following extended nonmilking periods on lactation in primiparous dairy cows.

In dairy cows, extended periods of nonmilking results in reduced milk secretion, modifications in milk composition, and eventually involution of the mammary glands. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of extended nonmilking periods on the recovery of milk yield and composition, and levels of prolactin and insulin-like growth factor-I in pasture-fed cows after resuming milking. Pasture-fed, primiparous, nonpregnant, Friesian dairy cows at mid lactation (mean ± standard deviation, 97 ± 2d in milk, 14.0 ± 2.5 L/d) were divided into 3 groups (n=6 per group). The cows were subjected to nonmilking periods of 7, 14, or 28d. Twice-daily milking was resumed for 7d following the nonmilking periods. Milk yield recoveries at the end of the 7-d remilking period were 91, 51, and 29% for the 7, 14, and 28-d nonmilked groups, respectively. The somatic cell count declined to less than 400,000 cells/mL by d 3 and 6 of remilking for the 7- and 14-d-nonmilked groups, respectively, but remained greater than 800,000 cells/mL in the 28-d-nonmilked group through the 7-d remilking period. By d 7 of remilking, the somatic cell count for the 7-d-nonmilked group was not different from pretrial values. Upon remilking, the milk fat content returned to pretrial values for the 7- and 14-d-nonmilked groups, although it remained lower than pretrial for the 28-d-nonmilked group. All 3 nonmilked groups had a higher milk protein content following 7d of remilking, compared with pretrial values. The lactose content returned to pretrial values for the 7-d-nonmilked group but remained lower for the 14- and 28-d-nonmilked groups. Circulating prolactin concentrations increased once remilking was resumed, compared with the pretrial and nonmilking periods. Prolactin concentrations did not majorly differ between the groups, with the levels upon 7d of remilking remaining higher than the pretrial concentrations and the nonmilked periods. Plasma concentrations of insulin-like growth factor-I increased during the nonmilking period and were greater in all 3 nonmilked groups on d 1 of remilking than pretrial values and returned to pretrial concentrations following remilking for the 7-d-nonmilked group, whereas the 14- and 28-d-nonmilked groups remained higher than the pretrial values. These data indicate that the process of involution is fully reversed after remilking following 7d of milk stasis but more extended periods of nonmilking prevent the complete recovery of lactation. However, even after 28d of milk stasis, the milk synthesis capacity of the mammary gland could still be partially recovered.

Activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 (STAT5) is linked to ß1-integrin protein abundance in unilaterally milked bovine mammary glands.

Prolactin (PRL) is important in the regulation of milk synthesis in mammary epithelial cells (MEC). In cattle, circulating levels of PRL are not limiting, suggesting the possible involvement of other factors that may control the response to PRL at the cellular level. The effects of milking frequency (MF) on milk synthesis are controlled locally within mammary glands and involve PRL signaling. To further investigate this relationship between MF and PRL signaling, udder halves of 17 dairy cows were milked either 4 times a day (4×) or once a day (1×) for 14 d in early lactation. Mammary biopsies were obtained 3 to 5h following milking from both udder halves of 10 cows, and changes in PRL and associated pathways were measured. The abundance of STAT5A mRNA was higher after 4× milking, whereas that of the PRL receptor (PRLR) and STAT3 were lower relative to that after 1× milking. In 4× mammary tissues, the protein levels of STAT5, activated STAT5, and ß1-integrin were higher, whereas the those of the long isoform of PRL receptor and activated STAT3 were lower than 1× tissues. The activation of STAT5 correlated strongly with major milk protein mRNA abundance (r=0.86 to 0.94) and ß1-integrin protein levels (r=0.91). These results confirm that major milk protein gene expression is associated with STAT5 activation and suggests that the STAT5 and ß1-integrin signaling pathways are linked. Modulation of ß1-integrin abundance in response to changes in MF may be a mechanism that controls the MEC ability to respond to PRL and therefore its secretory activity.

Invited review: reduced milking frequency: milk production and management implications.

Most dairy cows throughout the world are milked twice daily. In intensive dairying systems, however, it is not uncommon to increase milking frequency to between 3 and 6 times daily to increase milk production. Reducing milking frequency is much less common; however, once-daily milking of dairy cows, practiced either strategically during certain parts of the lactation or for the entire lactation, is not uncommon in key dairying countries where less emphasis is placed on milk production per cow. The practice fits well with more extensive dairy production systems, particularly those based on grazed pasture. A feature of once-daily milking is that it reduces milk yield by approximately 22%, depending on stage of lactation, breed, and parity, and it may adversely affect lactation length and persistency. However, it can offer several positive farm management options, especially related to labor requirements and farm working expenses. In addition, it may provide a tool to better manage the metabolism and energy balance of cows during early lactation or during periods of pasture deficit, and it may help to improve reproductive performance and animal health and welfare. Once-daily milking, representing one extreme of the mammary function spectrum, has attracted considerable research interest over the years. Consequently, substantial scientific information is available on its effects on mammary function, at both the physiological and molecular levels. This review focuses instead on the management of the cow milked once daily, covering the production response in relation to breed, stage of lactation, and parity, and its effect on energy status, reproduction, health and welfare, as well as on milk composition and processability.

Transcriptome profiling of Streptococcus uberis-induced mastitis reveals fundamental differences between immune gene expression in the mammary gland and in a primary cell culture model.

Streptococcus uberis is a prevalent causative organism of mastitis and resides naturally in the environment of the dairy cow making prevention of the disease difficult. A bovine cDNA microarray comprising approximately 22,000 expressed sequence tags was used to evaluate the transcriptional changes that occur in the mammary gland after the onset of clinical Strep. uberis mastitis. Five lactating Friesian heifers were intramammary infused in an uninfected quarter with approximately 1,000 to 1,500 cfu of a wild-type strain of Strep. uberis. Microarray results showed that Strep. uberis mastitis led to the differential expression of more than 2,200 genes by greater than 1.5-fold compared with noninfected control quarters. The most highly upregulated genes were associated with the immune response, programmed cell death, and oxidative stress. Quantitative real-time reverse transcription PCR analysis confirmed the increase in mRNA expression of immune-related genes complement component 3, clusterin, IL-8, calgranulin C, IFN-gamma , IL-10, IL-1beta, IL-6, toll-like receptor-2, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, serum amyloid A3, lactoferrin, LPS-bonding protein, and oxidative stress-related genes metallothionein 1A and superoxide dimutase 2. In contrast, a decrease of mRNA levels was observed for the major milk protein genes. Bovine mammary epithelial cells in culture challenged with the same Strep. uberis strain used to induce clinical mastitis in the in vivo animal experiment did not cause a change in the mRNA levels of the immune-related genes. This suggests that the expression of immune-related genes by mammary epithelial cells may be initiated by host factors and not Strep. uberis. However, challenging epithelial cells with different Strep. uberis strains and Staphylococcus aureus resulted in an increase in the mRNA expression of a subset of the immune-related genes measured. In comparison, an Escherichia coli challenge caused an increase in the majority of immune-related genes measured. Results demonstrate the complexity of the bovine mammary gland immune response to an infecting pathogen and indicate that a coordinated response exists between the resident, recruited, and inducible immune factors.

cDNA microarray analysis reveals that antioxidant and immune genes are upregulated during involution of the bovine mammary gland.

We have used cDNA microarray analysis to identify genes that play a role in bovine mammary involution. Involution was induced by termination of milking, and alveolar tissue was collected from 48 nonpregnant Friesian cows in mid lactation sacrificed at 0, 6, 12, 18, 24, 36, 72, and 192 h (n = 6/group) postmilking. The most highly upregulated genes were those associated with oxidative stress. Quantitative real-time reverse-transcription PCR analysis confirmed that mRNA expression of spermidine/spermine N(1)-acetyltransferase was increased by 24 h, superoxide dismutase 2 and metallothionein 1A by 36 h, and glutathione peroxidase by 72 h postmilking. The mRNA expression of the host defense proteins lactoferrin and lingual antimicrobial peptide were increased by 192 h postmilking. A dramatic increase in the protein expression of lactoferrin by 192 h postmilking was also detected by Western analysis. Decreased mRNA expression of the milk protein genes alpha(S1)-, beta-, and kappa-casein, and alpha-lactalbumin were early events in the process of involution occurring within 24 to 36 h postmilking, whereas beta-lactoglobulin mRNA was decreased by 192 h postmilking. Decreases in alpha-lactalbumin and beta-lactoglobulin protein levels in alveolar tissue occurred by 24 and 192 h postmilking, respectively, and the cell survival factors beta1-integrin and focal adhesion kinase were decreased by 72 and 192 h postmilking, respectively. The results demonstrate that in the bovine mammary gland, decreased milk protein gene expression and cell survival signaling are associated with multiple protective responses to oxidative stress that occur before the induction of immune responses and mammary epithelial cell apoptosis during involution.

Regulation of mammary tight junctions through parathyroid hormone-related peptide-induced activation of apical calcium channels.

Tight junctions (TJs) play an essential role in cell-cell contact between mammary epithelial cells and, as such, play a critical role in cell function. Moreover, calcium (Ca) plays a crucial role in the formation and maintenance of mammary TJs. Given that parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTHrP) is involved in cellular Ca homeostasis, we postulated a role for PTHrP in the regulation of mammary TJs. The effect of PTHrP(1-34) on TJs was studied in the mouse mammary cell line COMMA-1D by measuring transepithelial electrical resistance across cell monolayers and measuring the expression of TJ proteins. PTHrP stimulated TJ formation but only under conditions where extracellular Ca was limiting. This effect of PTHrP appeared to be indirect and mediated via increased intracellular availability of Ca as a result of increased Ca-channel activity in the apical membrane. The changes in TJs were associated with altered expression of the TJ protein occludin, but expression of the TJ protein claudin-1 was not affected. The effects of PTHrP on mammary TJs are independent of prolactin. In conclusion, PTHrP enhances mammary TJ formation when extracellular Ca is limiting by maintaining intracellular Ca supplies.

Elevated plasma cortisol reduces permeability of mammary tight junctions in the lactating bovine mammary epithelium.

Induction of tight junction permeability in the mammary epithelium decreases milk secretion, and in cows tight junctions become leaky after 17 h of milk accumulation. In vitro studies demonstrate the importance of glucocorticoids for the formation and maintenance of tight junctions. In this study we examined whether cortisol can prevent mammary tight junction permeability in the lactating gland in vivo, and inhibit the associated milk loss, using our milk-accumulation model to challenge tight junction patency. Following a 4-day control period Jersey cows were subjected to a 24-h period in which they were milked twice at 0700 and 1500 h (TM;n=6), once at 0700 h (OM;n=7), or once and treated with ACTH (40 IU per 2 h, starting after 14 h of milk accumulation) to increase endogenous cortisol levels (OM+ACTH;n=7). Frequent blood samples for cortisol, lactose and glucose analyses were taken via indwelling jugular catheters. ACTH treatment resulted in a sustained elevation of systemic cortisol concentrations. Plasma lactose, an indicator of tight junction leakiness, was not changed in TM cows, but began to increase rapidly at 17 h of milk accumulation in OM cows. Treatment with ACTH prevented the increase in plasma lactose, although levels were slightly, but not significantly, higher than in TM cows, indicating that elevated plasma cortisol reduced mammary tight junction leakiness. Milk yield was reduced by 12% in both once-milked groups, despite cortisol preventing tight junction leakiness. However, the milk loss in the latter group may not be related to leaky tight junctions, but be due to a reduction in milk precursor uptake by the mammary gland. Consistent with this notion was a 34% increase in plasma glucose levels in OM+ACTH cows only.

Prolactin, alone or in combination with glucocorticoids, enhances tight junction formation and expression of the tight junction protein occludin in mammary cells.

Tight junctions (TJ) between adjacent epithelial cells play an important role in maintaining mammary function in the differentiated mammary gland. Mouse mammary cell lines (HC11 and Comma-1D) were used to investigate the effect of the lactogenic hormones prolactin (PRL) and glucocorticoids on the formation of mammary TJ. TJ formation was assessed by an increase in transepithelial electrical resistance and a decrease in paracellular flux of radiolabeled inulin. Both PRL and the synthetic glucocorticoid dexamethasone (DEX) stimulated TJ formation. The biggest effect on TJ formation was observed when both hormones were used in combination, but only when cells were pretreated with DEX. The effects of PRL and DEX are mediated, at least in part, via expression of the transmembrane TJ protein occludin. In summary, these data are the first to show an effect of PRL on mammary TJ formation and the expression of TJ proteins, and confirm the TJ-stimulating effects of glucocorticoids that have been reported previously.

Reduction in heat-induced gastrointestinal hyperpermeability in rats by bovine colostrum and goat milk powders.

Male Sprague-Dawley rats were assigned to one of three dietary groups [standard diet (Cont; n = 8), standard diet plus bovine colostrum powder (BColost 1.7 g/kg; n = 8), or goat milk powder (GMilk 1.7 g/kg; n = 8)] to determine the ability of these supplements to reduce gastrointestinal hyperpermeability induced by heat. Raising core body temperature of rats to 41.5 degrees C increased transfer of (51)Cr-EDTA from gut into blood 34-fold relative to the ambient temperature value (P < 0.05) in the Cont group of rats, indicative of increased gastrointestinal permeability. Significantly less (P < 0.01) (51)Cr-EDTA was transferred into the blood of rats in either the BColost (27% of Cont) or GMilk group (10% of Cont) after heating, showing that prior supplementation with either bovine colostrum or goat milk powder significantly reduced the impact of heat stress on gastrointestinal permeability. The changes in the BColost group were not significantly different than those of the GMilk group. The potential mechanism of the protective effect of bovine colostrum and goat milk powders may involve modulation of tight junction permeability, because both powders were able to maintain transepithelial resistance in Madin Darby canine kidney cells challenged with EGTA compared with cells maintained in media only. The results show that bovine colostrum powder can partially alleviate the effects of hyperthermia on gastrointestinal permeability in the intact animal. Moreover, goat milk powder was equally as effective as bovine colostrum powder, and both may be of benefit in other situations where gastrointestinal barrier function is compromised.

Effect of milking frequency on milk somatic cell count characteristics and mammary secretory cell damage in cows.

OBJECTIVES: To examine whether once daily milking (ODM) increases somatic cell count (SCC) and causes changes in the proportion of macrophages, lymphocytes, or neutrophils in milk, and to examine whether ODM causes mammary secretory cell damage. DESIGN: During 3 successive periods, cows were milked twice daily (days 1 through 4), once daily (days 5 through 10), and twice daily (days 11 through 14); thus, each cow served as its own control. Milk samples were collected during each milking for SCC, bovine serum albumin (BSA; except days 1 and 14), and N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase (NAGase) activity analyses. Differential cell counts were determined on days 2 (period 1), 5 and 8 (period 2), and 11 (period 3) in morning milk samples. ANIMALS: 8 multiparous Jersey cows. PROCEDURES: Cell counter (SCC), staining and counting (differential SCC), ELISA (BSA), and enzyme activity (NAGase). RESULTS: Once daily milking increased SCC (total and concentration), percentage of neutrophils, and BSA (content and total mass); during subsequent twice daily milking, SCC decreased, but BSA content and percentage of neutrophils remained increased. Activity of NAGase was not affected by ODM. CONCLUSIONS: ODM increases SCC, but this is not associated with damage to mammary secretory cells. The ODM-related sustained increase in BSA content coincided with an increase in neutrophil numbers, suggesting a causal relation.

Epigenetics: a possible role in acute and transgenerational regulation of dairy cow milk production.

A potential role for epigenetic mechanisms in the regulation of mammary function in the dairy cow is emerging. Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in genome function that occur because of chemical changes rather than DNA sequence changes. DNA methylation is an epigenetic event that results in the silencing of gene expression and may be passed on to the next generation. However, recent studies investigating different physiological states and changes in milk protein gene expression suggest that DNA methylation may also play an acute, regulatory, role in gene transcription. This overview will highlight the role of DNA methylation in the silencing of milk protein gene expression during mastitis and mammary involution. Moreover, environmental factors such as nutrition may induce epigenetic modifications of gene expression. The current research investigating the possibility of in utero, hence cross-generational, epigenetic modifications in dairy cows will also be discussed. Understanding how the mammary gland responds to environmental cues provides a potential to enhance milk production not only of the dairy cow but also of her daughter.

Host-defence-related proteins in cows' milk.

Milk is a source of bioactive molecules with wide-ranging functions. Among these, the immune properties have been the best characterised. In recent years, it has become apparent that besides the immunoglobulins, milk also contains a range of minor immune-related proteins that collectively form a significant first line of defence against pathogens, acting both within the mammary gland itself as well as in the digestive tract of the suckling neonate. We have used proteomics technologies to characterise the repertoire of host-defence-related milk proteins in detail, revealing more than 100 distinct gene products in milk, of which at least 15 are known host-defence-related proteins. Those having intrinsic antimicrobial activity likely function as effector proteins of the local mucosal immune defence (e.g. defensins, cathelicidins and the calgranulins). Here, we focus on the activities and biological roles of the cathelicidins and mammary serum amyloid A. The function of the immune-related milk proteins that do not have intrinsic antimicrobial activity is also discussed, notably lipopolysaccharide-binding protein, RNase4, RNase5/angiogenin and cartilage-glycoprotein 39 kDa. Evidence is shown that at least some of these facilitate recognition of microbes, resulting in the activation of innate immune signalling pathways in cells associated with the mammary and/or gut mucosal surface. Finally, the contribution of the bacteria in milk to its functionality is discussed. These investigations are elucidating how an effective first line of defence is achieved in the bovine mammary gland and how milk contributes to optimal digestive function in the suckling calf. This study will contribute to a better understanding of the health benefits of milk, as well as to the development of high-value ingredients from milk.

Immune components of bovine colostrum and milk.

Colostrum and milk provide a complete diet for the neonate. In ruminants, colostrum is also the sole source of initial acquired immunity for the offspring. Milk therefore plays an important role in mammalian host defense. In colostrum, the concentration of immunoglobulins is particularly high, with IgG being the major immunoglobulin class present in ruminant milk, in contrast to IgA being the major immunoglobulin present in human milk. Immunoglobulins are transported into mammary secretions via specialized receptors. In addition to immunoglobulins, both colostrum and milk contain viable cells, including neutrophils and macrophages, which secrete a range of immune-related components into milk. These include cytokines and antimicrobial proteins and peptides, such as lactoferrin, defensins, and cathelicidins. Mammary epithelial cells themselves also contribute to the host defense by secreting a range of innate immune effector molecules. A detailed understanding of these proteins and peptides offers great potential to add value to the dairy industry. This is demonstrated by the wide-ranging commercial applications of lactoferrin derived from bovine milk. Knowledge of the immune function of milk, in particular, how the gland responds to pathogens, can be used to boost the concentrations of immune factors in milk through farm management practices and vaccination protocols. The latter approach is currently being used to maximize yields of bovine milk-derived IgA directed at specific antigens for therapeutic and prophylactic use. Increasingly sophisticated proteomics technologies are being applied to identify and characterize the functions of the minor components of milk. An overview is presented of the immune factors in colostrum and milk as well as the results of research aimed at realizing this untapped value in milk.

Effect of unilateral once or twice daily milking of cows on milk yield and udder characteristics in early and late lactation.

Twelve multiparous British Friesian cows in early (40 +/- 23 d in milk; n = 6) or late (216 +/- 17 d in milk; n = 6) lactation were used to study the effects of milking frequency on yield, udder volume and milk storage within the udder. After a 2 week control period of twice daily milking, diagonally opposed udder halves within a cow were milked once or twice daily for 3 weeks. Milk yield was 28-38% lower from the halves that were milked once daily than from halves that were milked twice daily. The loss of milk yield, expressed as a decrease in the relative milk yield quotient (an index that accounts for pretreatment differences), was greater for cows in early than in late lactation (0.59 v. 0.68). Empty udder-half volume was not decreased by once daily milking, suggesting that no cell loss occurred. Instead, once daily milking reduced the secretion efficiency (units of milk per unit of empty udder-half volume) by 46 and 27% respectively in early and late lactation; thus, at least part of the loss was due to reduced metabolic activity of the mammary epithelium. There were positive correlations between the relative milk yield quotient and the proportion (r = 0.804) or volume (r = 0.644) of cisternal milk in the glands that were milked once daily. These results confirm that, during extended milking intervals, milk loss was smallest for cows that stored a larger proportion of milk in the gland cistern.