RESUMO
AIM: To compare the properties of insulin detemir with human insulin or insulin aspart in various in vitro and in vivo experiments, thereby highlighting the importance of performing dose-response studies when investigating insulin analogues, in this study specifically insulin detemir. METHODS: Displacement of membrane-associated insulin receptors from human and rat hepatocytes, and from Chinese Hamster Ovary cells over-expressing human insulin receptor (CHO-hIR) at varying albumin concentrations is measured. Lipogenesis in primary rat adipocytes over time and the effects in the simultaneous presence of insulin detemir and human insulin or insulin aspart are assessed. The hyperinsulinaemic euglycaemic clamp technique in rats is used to establish dose-response curves for multiple metabolic endpoints and to investigate the effects of the simultaneous presence of insulin detemir and human insulin. RESULTS: Both in vitro and in vivo, insulin detemir shows full efficacy and right-shifted parallel dose-response curves compared with human insulin. The potency estimates are different between the in vivo and in vitro conditions and among different in vitro conditions, that is the potency decreases in vitro with increasing albumin concentration. The effects of insulin detemir and human insulin are additive both in vitro and in vivo. CONCLUSIONS: Insulin detemir is fully efficacious compared with human insulin on all metabolic endpoints measured in vitro and in vivo. The fact that the potency estimates are method-dependent emphasizes the importance of establishing full dose-response relationships when characterizing insulin detemir.
Assuntos
Diabetes Mellitus Tipo 2/tratamento farmacológico , Hipoglicemiantes/administração & dosagem , Insulina/análogos & derivados , Insulina/administração & dosagem , Animais , Células CHO , Cricetinae , Cricetulus , Relação Dose-Resposta a Droga , Esquema de Medicação , Hemoglobinas Glicadas , Humanos , Hipoglicemiantes/farmacologia , Insulina/farmacologia , Insulina/uso terapêutico , Insulina Aspart , Insulina Detemir , Insulina de Ação Prolongada , Lipídeos/biossíntese , Masculino , Ratos , Ratos Sprague-Dawley , Receptor de Insulina/metabolismoRESUMO
Batterham et al. report that the gut peptide hormone PYY3-36 decreases food intake and body-weight gain in rodents, a discovery that has been heralded as potentially offering a new therapy for obesity. However, we have been unable to replicate their results. Although the reasons for this discrepancy remain undetermined, an effective anti-obesity drug ultimately must produce its effects across a range of situations. The fact that the findings of Batterham et al. cannot easily be replicated calls into question the potential value of an anti-obesity approach that is based on administration of PYY3-36.
Assuntos
Depressores do Apetite/farmacologia , Regulação do Apetite/efeitos dos fármacos , Comportamento Alimentar/efeitos dos fármacos , Peptídeo YY/farmacologia , Animais , Animais Endogâmicos , Apetite/efeitos dos fármacos , Apetite/fisiologia , Depressores do Apetite/uso terapêutico , Comportamento Animal/efeitos dos fármacos , Peso Corporal/efeitos dos fármacos , Meio Ambiente , Humanos , Metanálise como Assunto , Camundongos , Obesidade/tratamento farmacológico , Fragmentos de Peptídeos , Peptídeo YY/administração & dosagem , Peptídeo YY/sangue , Peptídeo YY/uso terapêutico , Ratos , Reprodutibilidade dos Testes , Estresse Fisiológico/complicações , Estresse Fisiológico/fisiopatologiaRESUMO
The neuropeptide Y (NPY)/peptide YY (PYY) system has been implicated in the physiology of obesity for several decades. More recently ignited enormous interest in PYY3-36, an endogenous Y2-receptor agonist, as a promising anti-obesity compound. Despite this interest, there have been remarkably few subsequent reports reproducing or extending the initial findings, while at the same time studies finding no anti-obesity effects have surfaced. Out of 41 different rodent studies conducted (in 16 independent labs worldwide), 33 (83%) were unable to reproduce the reported effects and obtained no change or sometimes increased food intake, despite use of the same experimental conditions (i.e. adaptation protocols, routes of drug administration and doses, rodent strains, diets, drug vendors, light cycles, room temperatures). Among studies by authors in the original study, procedural caveats are reported under which positive effects may be obtained. Currently, data speak against a sustained decrease in food intake, body fat, or body weight gain following PYY3-36 administration and make the previously suggested role of the hypothalamic melanocortin system unlikely as is the existence of PYY deficiency in human obesity. We review the studies that are in the public domain which support or challenge PYY3-36 as a potential anti-obesity target.
Assuntos
Fármacos Antiobesidade/farmacologia , Peso Corporal/efeitos dos fármacos , Ingestão de Alimentos/efeitos dos fármacos , Peptídeo YY/farmacologia , Animais , Comportamento Animal , Interpretação Estatística de Dados , Dipeptidil Peptidase 4/metabolismo , Humanos , Fragmentos de Peptídeos , Peptídeo YY/administração & dosagem , Receptores de Neuropeptídeo Y/agonistas , Resposta de Saciedade/efeitos dos fármacos , Especificidade da Espécie , Estresse Fisiológico/fisiopatologiaRESUMO
The orexigenic role of central neuropeptide Y (NPY) in nonhuman primates has been questioned. Therefore, we have studied the effect of central NPY on feeding in ad libitum-fed male rhesus macaques. NPY dose-dependently increased food intake, with the maximal effect obtained by 50 microg (960 min food intake +/- SEM, 104 +/- 5 to 188 +/- 11 g; vehicle vs. NPY; n = 6). Blood glucose levels were unaffected by intracerebroventricular administration of NPY, but animals receiving either 20 or 50 microg displayed increased plasma levels of insulin and cortisol at few time points. To assess the pharmacological specificity of this response, a novel Y1 antagonist, [(Ile,Glu,Pro,Daba,Tyr,Arg,Leu,Arg,Tyr-NH2)2 cyclic (2,4'),(2',4)-diamide] (Y1ANT), was synthesized. Receptor binding experiments demonstrated that Y1ANT preferentially binds to Y1 and Y4 receptors (pKi 10.12 +/- 0.06 and 9.11 +/- 0.05 nmol/L, respectively). Functional analysis revealed that Y1ANT is a Y1 antagonist and a partial Y4 agonist. Central administration of Y1ANT blocked NPY-induced feeding. In food-deprived monkeys, Y1ANT attenuated the feeding response. However, Y1ANT had no effect on food intake in satiated monkeys. Thus, endogenous NPY is likely to be involved in the regulation of food intake in the nonhuman primate, and this effect is at least partially mediated via Y1-like receptors.
Assuntos
Encéfalo/metabolismo , Ingestão de Alimentos/fisiologia , Receptores de Neuropeptídeo Y/fisiologia , Animais , Clonidina/farmacologia , Relação Dose-Resposta a Droga , Ingestão de Alimentos/efeitos dos fármacos , Hidrocortisona/sangue , Injeções Intraventriculares , Insulina/sangue , Macaca mulatta , Masculino , Neuropeptídeo Y/agonistas , Neuropeptídeo Y/antagonistas & inibidores , Neuropeptídeo Y/farmacologia , Peptídeos Cíclicos/farmacologia , Receptores de Neuropeptídeo Y/antagonistas & inibidoresRESUMO
The many actions of somatostatin in the central nervous system are mediated through specific membrane receptors of which five have been cloned. In this study, we have investigated the distribution of one of these receptors, the sst2 subtype, in the brain and spinal cord of the golden hamster (Mesocricetus auratus). Immunohistochemistry was carried out by using polyclonal antibodies raised against the C-terminal part of the human sst2 receptor. sst2 immunoreactivity was found in the forebrain, brainstem, cerebellum, and spinal cord. In the forebrain, strong immunoreactivity was observed in the deep layers of the neocortex as well as in the endopiriform cortex, claustrum, and basolateral amygdaloid nucleus. Immunoreactivity was also found in the CA1 area of the hippocampus and in the subiculum. In the diencephalon, staining was observed in the periventricular area, the dorsomedial and arcuate nuclei of the hypothalamus, and the medial habenular nucleus. Other areas such as the thalamus, striatum, and globus pallidus were almost devoid of staining. In the brainstem, strong immunoreactivity was observed in the locus coeruleus and the parabrachial nucleus. In addition, immunostaining was observed in the cortex of the cerebellum. In the spinal cord, intense immunoreactivity was seen in lamina I and II of the dorsal horn. Finally, immunoreactive cells were widely distributed in the anterior pituitary. The localization of the sst2 receptor in many brain regions suggests that this receptor subtype is involved in different neuromodulatory actions of somatostatin such as somatosensory, motor, memory, and neuroendocrine functions.
Assuntos
Mapeamento Encefálico , Sistema Nervoso Central/química , Receptores de Somatostatina/análise , Animais , Tronco Encefálico/química , Cerebelo/química , Cricetinae , Diencéfalo/química , Humanos , Immunoblotting , Imuno-Histoquímica , Masculino , Mesocricetus , Telencéfalo/químicaRESUMO
Somatostatin [somatotropin release-inhibiting factor (SRIF)] is a cyclic tetradecapeptide that is a potent inhibitor of growth hormone (GH) secretion from the anterior pituitary. In addition to the inhibitory effects on GH-release, SRIF-14 and SRIF-28, a 28-amino acid form of SRIF extended from the N-terminal end, inhibit the release of a variety of other peptides including glucagon, insulin, and gastrin, and both peptides act as neurotransmitters and neuromodulators in the central nervous system and the periphery. SRIF exerts its potent inhibitory effects following binding to high affinity SRIF receptors (ssts) that have been identified on target tissues. The recent cloning of five ssts has confirmed that the effects of SRIF are mediated by a family of G protein-coupled receptors (sst1-5). Based on structural and pharmacological properties sst2, sst3, and sst5 belong to the SRIF1 receptor subclass, and the sst1 and sst4 subtypes comprise the SRIF2 subclass. The major difference between these two subclasses is that SRIF1 receptors bind octapeptide and hexapeptide SRIF-14 analogs with high affinity, while SRIF2 receptors bind these analogs with drastically reduced affinity. A screening program was initiated to identify a lead nonpeptide with affinity for sst1-5 receptors. The search focused on a scaffold with the following attachments: (1) a heteroaromatic nucleus to mimic the Trp8 residue, (2) a nonheteroaromatic nucleus to mimic Phe7, and (3) a primary amine or other basic group to mimic the Lys9 residue of SRIF-14. Using these criteria, a novel thiourea (NNC 26-9100, 17) was discovered as a structural lead. The key fragments in this compound are a heteroaromatic moiety (pyridine), an aromatic group, and a basic imidazole group connected through a thiourea scaffold. Compound 17 exhibited a Ki = 6 nM at sst4 receptors with a 100-fold sst4/sst2 selectivity and was shown to be a full agonist at this receptor subtype. This article will review the literature on the design and development of nonpeptide somatostatin receptor ligands and the therapeutic potential of these agents. Furthermore, our work on the development of 2-pyridylthioureas as sst4 receptor agonists will be described.
Assuntos
Receptores de Somatostatina/efeitos dos fármacos , Somatostatina/agonistas , Tioureia/farmacologia , Animais , Humanos , Proteínas de Membrana , Receptores de Somatostatina/agonistas , Receptores de Somatostatina/antagonistas & inibidores , Somatostatina/metabolismo , Somatostatina/fisiologia , Tioureia/análogos & derivadosRESUMO
Utilizing NNC 26-9100 (11) as a structural lead, a variety of nonpeptide derivatives of somatostatin were synthesized and evaluated for sst2 and sst4 receptor binding affinity. A novel thiourea scaffold was utilized to attach (1) a heteroaromatic nucleus to mimic the Trp8 residue, (2) a nonheteroaromatic nucleus to mimic Phe7, and (3) a primary amine or other basic group to mimic the Lys9 residue of somatostatin. Displacement studies were carried out using membranes from cell lines expressing ssts [BHK cells (sst4) and HEK 293 cells (sst2)] utilizing [125I]Tyr11-SRIF as the radioligand. Several thioureas (11, 38, 39, 41, and 42) and the urea 66 exhibited Ki values of less than 100 nM. The thioureas 11 (Ki = 6 nM) and 41 (Ki = 16 nM) and the urea 66 (Ki = 14 nM) are believed to be the most potent nonpeptide sst4 agonists known. Since the thiourea 11 and the urea 66 exhibit high sst4 selectivity, these novel nonpeptide derivatives may be useful tools for studying the sst4 receptor. Studies are currently in progress to evaluate the therapeutic potential of NNC 26-9100 (11) in the treatment of glaucoma.
Assuntos
Aminopiridinas/síntese química , Receptores de Somatostatina/agonistas , Somatostatina/agonistas , Tioureia/análogos & derivados , Tioureia/síntese química , Aminopiridinas/química , Aminopiridinas/metabolismo , Aminopiridinas/farmacologia , Animais , Linhagem Celular , Cricetinae , Glaucoma/tratamento farmacológico , Humanos , Proteínas de Membrana , Ensaio Radioligante , Receptores de Somatostatina/biossíntese , Relação Estrutura-Atividade , Tioureia/química , Tioureia/metabolismo , Tioureia/farmacologiaRESUMO
A number of neuropeptide Y (NPY) receptor subtypes, including the recently cloned Y5 receptor, have been implicated in the stimulation of food intake. In the present study, Y5 receptor antisense oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) were used to assess the potential involvement of the Y5 receptor in the regulation of spontaneous as well as NPY-induced food intake. Repeated central administration of Y5 antisense ODN significantly decreased spontaneous food intake and subsequently resulted in a significant weight loss. Furthermore, Y5 antisense ODN pre-treatment significantly inhibited the robust feeding response elicited by central administration of NPY (5.3+/-0. 8 vs 1.08+/-0.28 g, vehicle+/-s.e.m. vs Y5 ODN+/-s.e.m.). The present results provide evidence that central Y5 receptors are involved in both spontaneous as well as NPY-induced food intake, which may prove to be a new therapeutic route in the treatment of obesity and other disorders of appetite.
Assuntos
Ingestão de Alimentos/efeitos dos fármacos , Neuropeptídeo Y/farmacologia , Oligonucleotídeos Antissenso/administração & dosagem , Receptores de Neuropeptídeo Y/fisiologia , Receptores de Neuropeptídeos/fisiologia , Análise de Variância , Animais , Peso Corporal/efeitos dos fármacos , Insulina/sangue , Masculino , Distribuição Aleatória , Ratos , Ratos Wistar , Receptores de Neuropeptídeo Y/genéticaRESUMO
Antisera selective for five somatostatin receptor subtypes, human sst1-sst5, were raised in rabbits. C-terminal parts of human sst1-sst5 receptors were expressed as fusion proteins with glutathione S-transferase. Fusion proteins were affinity-purified and used for raising polyclonal antibodies. In Western blot analysis, all five antisera were tested on preparations of mammalian cell lines transfected with human sst1-sst5, respectively. sst1 antiserum reacted with a broad band of 53-72 kDa. A band of 71-95 kDa was detected with the antiserum raised against sst2, 65-85 kDa with sst3 antiserum, 45 kDa with sst4 antiserum and 52-66 kDa with sst5 antiserum. No cross-reactivity could be detected to any of the other four somatostatin receptor subtypes. Enzymatical deglycosylation of the receptors revealed that sst1, sst2, sst5 and possibly sst3 in this system are subjected to N-linked glycosylation, whereas sst4 is not. Two of the antisera (sst2 and sst5) were used for immunohistochemical localization of the receptors. sst2 and sst5 antisera labeled neurons in e.g. the amygdaloid complex, hippocampus, fascia dentata and the neocortex in rat and monkey tissue. This is the first report on antisera against all five somatostatin receptor subtypes and the first immunohistochemical visualization of sst5 receptors in the mammalian brain.
Assuntos
Anticorpos , Encéfalo/metabolismo , Neurônios/metabolismo , Receptores de Somatostatina/análise , Receptores de Somatostatina/biossíntese , Tonsila do Cerebelo/química , Tonsila do Cerebelo/metabolismo , Animais , Especificidade de Anticorpos , Encéfalo/citologia , Linhagem Celular , Membrana Celular/metabolismo , Glicosilação , Humanos , Imuno-Histoquímica , Macaca fascicularis , Masculino , Peso Molecular , Neurônios/citologia , Prosencéfalo/citologia , Prosencéfalo/metabolismo , Coelhos , Ratos , Ratos Wistar , Receptores de Somatostatina/classificação , Proteínas Recombinantes de Fusão/análise , Proteínas Recombinantes de Fusão/biossíntese , TransfecçãoRESUMO
Neuropeptide Y (NPY) and pancreatic polypeptide (PP) bind to the Y-receptors with very different affinities: NPY has high affinity for the receptors Y(1), Y(2) and Y(5), while PP binds only to Y(4)-receptor with picomolar affinity. By exchanging of specific amino acid positions between the two peptides, we developed 38 full-length PP/NPY chimeras with binding properties that are completely different from those of the two native ligands. Pig NPY (pNPY) analogs containing the segment 19-23 from human PP (hPP) bound to the Y-receptors with much lower affinity than NPY itself. The affinity of the hPP analog containing the pNPY segments 1-7 and 19-23 was comparable to that of pNPY at the Y(1)- and Y(5)-receptor subtypes, and to that of hPP at the Y(4)-receptor. Furthermore, the presence of the segments 1-7 from chicken PP (cPP) and 19-23 from pNPY within the hPP sequence led to a ligand with IC(50) of 40 pM at the Y(5)-receptor. This is the most potent Y(5)-receptor ligand known so far, with 15-fold higher affinity than NPY.
Assuntos
Polipeptídeo Pancreático/química , Polipeptídeo Pancreático/metabolismo , Receptores de Neuropeptídeo Y/química , Receptores de Neuropeptídeo Y/metabolismo , Sequência de Aminoácidos , Animais , Ligação Competitiva , Linhagem Celular , Galinhas , Dicroísmo Circular , Cricetinae , Humanos , Concentração Inibidora 50 , Cinética , Ligantes , Biossíntese Peptídica , Ligação Proteica , Ratos , Proteínas Recombinantes de Fusão/química , Homologia de Sequência de Aminoácidos , Relação Estrutura-Atividade , SuínosRESUMO
5.7-Dinitro-quinoxaline-2.3-dione (MNQX) displaced [3H]glycine binding to cortical membranes but had no effect n [3H]3-((+/-)-2-carboxypiperazin-4-yl)-propyl-1-phosphonic acid ([3H]CPP) binding. MNQX potently antagonized N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-evoked release of [3H]GABA from cultured cortical neurones, NMDA evoked spreading depression and NMDA depolarizations in the rat neo-cortex. All of these responses were reversed by addition of glycine to the perfusion media. These results suggested that MNQX is an antagonist at the strychnine-insensitive glycine receptor associated with the NMDA receptor/ionophore complex. Furthermore the compound was found to antagonise audiogenic seizures in DBA-2 mice indicating the potential of glycine antagonists of this type in anticonvulsant therapy.
Assuntos
Anticonvulsivantes , Quinoxalinas/farmacologia , Receptores de Neurotransmissores/fisiologia , Estricnina/farmacologia , Animais , Ácido Aspártico/análogos & derivados , Ácido Aspártico/farmacologia , Córtex Cerebral/efeitos dos fármacos , Córtex Cerebral/metabolismo , Depressão Alastrante da Atividade Elétrica Cortical/efeitos dos fármacos , Feminino , Glicina/metabolismo , Glicina/farmacologia , Técnicas In Vitro , Masculino , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos DBA , N-Metilaspartato , Gravidez , Pirrolidinonas/farmacologia , Ratos , Receptores de Glicina , Receptores de Neurotransmissores/efeitos dos fármacos , Receptores de Neurotransmissores/metabolismo , Convulsões/induzido quimicamente , Convulsões/fisiopatologia , Ácido gama-Aminobutírico/metabolismoRESUMO
cDNAs encoding glutamate receptor glu1, glu2 (Q and R) or glu4 under control of a constitutively active metallothionine promoter, were transfected into baby hamster kidney cells. Following the addition of selection agent, transfectants expressing high levels of glutamate receptor as measured by [3H]alpha-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-isoxalazole-4-propionate (AMPA) binding, were selected for further studies. Using glutamate receptor antibodies, the receptor proteins were visualized in Western blotting as having a molecular weight of approximately 100 kDa. [3H]AMPA binding to the glutamate receptor expressing cell lines revealed that glu1, glu2 (Q), and glu4 receptors displayed a single site in Scatchard analysis with Kd values of 12, 15.7 and 21 nM, respectively. However, the Ca2+ impermeable variant of the glu2 receptor, glu2 (R) displayed a curvilinear Scatchard plot. Computer resolution suggested the presence of a high and low affinity state (KH = 2.9 nM; KL = 40.7 nM). The pharmacological profile of the [3H]AMPA binding to these recombinant receptors resembled the high affinity [3H]AMPA binding site in rat brain showing high affinity for glutamate, quisqualate, and medium affinity for 6-cyano-7-nitro-quinoxaline-2,3-dione, CNQX; 6,7-dinitro-quinoxaline-2,3-dione, DNQX; and 6-nitro-7-sulphanyl-benzo(f)quinoxaline-2,3,dione, NBQX. Kainate displayed low affinity and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), was inactive in inhibiting specific [3H]AMPA binding. These cell lines will prove to be important tools in the study of glutamate receptors.
Assuntos
Receptores de AMPA/efeitos dos fármacos , Ácido alfa-Amino-3-hidroxi-5-metil-4-isoxazol Propiônico/metabolismo , Animais , Western Blotting , Linhagem Celular , Membrana Celular/metabolismo , Cricetinae , DNA/biossíntese , Rim/metabolismo , Ligantes , Peso Molecular , Reação em Cadeia da Polimerase , Proteínas/metabolismo , RatosRESUMO
Somatostatin is known to mediate its actions through five G-protein-coupled receptors (sst1-sst5). We have studied the expression of the sst1 receptor in the rat hypothalamus by using a subtype-specific antiserum. In Western blotting, the antiserum reacted specifically with a band with an apparent molecular weight of 80,000 in membranes prepared from hypothalamic tissue. The localization of the sst1 receptor was investigated by immunohistochemistry in hypothalamus sections. Additionally, an immunofluorescent double-labeling was performed for the sst1 receptor and somatostatin. Light microscopy revealed that the sst1 receptor is located in perikarya and nerve fibers in the rostral periventricular area surrounding the third ventricle as well as in nerve fibers projecting from the perikarya to the external layer of the median eminence. In these neuronal structures, sst1 immunoreactivity was found to be colocalized with somatostatin. Furthermore, the location of sst1 receptors was studied by immunoelectron microscopy in the median eminence. In the external layer, receptor immunoreactivity was confined to nerve terminals. Immunoreactive nerve terminals were seen to make synapse-like junctions with other both stained and unstained nerve terminals. Thus, the sst1 receptor is present in the classic somatostatinergic hypothalamic parvocellular system inhibiting hormone secretion from the anterior pituitary gland. These findings indicate that the sst1 receptor may act as an autoreceptor and inhibit the release of somatostatin from periventricular neurons projecting to the median eminence.
Assuntos
Eminência Mediana/química , Núcleo Hipotalâmico Paraventricular/química , Terminações Pré-Sinápticas/ultraestrutura , Receptores de Somatostatina/análise , Animais , Imunofluorescência , Immunoblotting , Masculino , Eminência Mediana/citologia , Microscopia Imunoeletrônica , Neurônios/química , Neurônios/ultraestrutura , Núcleo Hipotalâmico Paraventricular/citologia , Terminações Pré-Sinápticas/química , Ratos , Ratos WistarRESUMO
In screening for antifungal metabolites, a novel compound, malonofungin, exhibiting growth inhibitory activity against Botrytis cinerea (grey mould), has been isolated from fermentations of Phaeoramularia fusimaculans CBS 616.87. Its structure is established as (E)-(3R,4S,5S)-5-acetoxy-2-amino-2-carboxy-3,4-dihydroxy-14-oxoicos++ +-6-enoic acid, representing an addition to the rare class of naturally occurring aminomalonic acids. 1H NMR data and extensive use of CD spectroscopy have been utilized to establish the absolute stereochemistry of malonofungin. The structural and biological relationship of malonofungin to previously reported fungal metabolites is discussed.