Getting Australia more active: challenges and opportunities for health promotion.

A growing body of evidence demonstrates that regular physical activity promotes health and assists in the prevention of non-communicable diseases but this is presently curtailed by low and unhealthy participation rates in Australia and comparable industrialised countries. Compounding the problem is knowledge that physical inactivity is independently associated with poor health outcomes. Despite physical activity being described as public health's 'best bet' or 'best buy', motivating individuals and groups to adopt and maintain physical activity continues to be a major challenge for health professionals. Global advocacy for prevention efforts must be operationalised through national to local strategies to promote and support physical activity in multiple settings including the home, schools and workplace. The Australian health promotion community has and continues to play a leadership role in physical activity promotion. However, there is an urgent need to continue to promote the importance of physical activity, along with its pivotal role in the prevention of non-communicable diseases, alongside related agendas including healthy diets, tobacco control and environmental sustainability. This commentary overviews the contemporary status of physical activity promotion in Australia and identifies key challenges and opportunities moving forward.

Mutations in the human homologue of mouse dl cause autosomal recessive and dominant hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia.

X-linked hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia results in abnormal morphogenesis of teeth, hair and eccrine sweat glands. The gene (ED1) responsible for the disorder has been identified, as well as the analogous X-linked gene (Ta) in the mouse. Autosomal recessive disorders, phenotypically indistinguishable from the X-linked forms, exist in humans and at two separate loci (crinkled, cr, and downless, dl) in mice. Dominant disorders, possibly allelic to the recessive loci, are seen in both species (ED3, Dlslk). A candidate gene has recently been identified at the dl locus that is mutated in both dl and Dlslk mutant alleles. We isolated and characterized its human DL homologue, and identified mutations in three families displaying recessive inheritance and two with dominant inheritance. The disorder does not map to the candidate gene locus in all autosomal recessive families, implying the existence of at least one additional human locus. The putative protein is predicted to have a single transmembrane domain, and shows similarity to two separate domains of the tumour necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) family.

Perforin-mediated cytotoxicity is critical for surveillance of spontaneous lymphoma.

Immune surveillance by cytotoxic lymphocytes against cancer has been postulated for decades, but direct evidence for the role of cytotoxic lymphocytes in protecting against spontaneous malignancy has been lacking. As the rejection of many experimental cancers by cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells is dependent on the pore-forming protein perforin (pfp), we examined pfp-deficient mice for increased cancer susceptibility. Here we show that pfp-deficient mice have a high incidence of malignancy in distinct lymphoid cell lineages (T, B, NKT), indicating a specific requirement for pfp in protection against lymphomagenesis. The susceptibility to lymphoma was accentuated by simultaneous lack of expression of the p53 gene, mutations in which also commonly predispose to human malignancies, including lymphoma. In contrast, the incidence and age of onset of sarcoma was unaffected in p53-deficient mice. Pfp-deficient mice were at least 1,000-fold more susceptible to these lymphomas when transplanted, compared with immunocompetent mice in which tumor rejection was controlled by CD8(+) T lymphocytes. This study is the first that implicates direct cytotoxicity by lymphocytes in regulating lymphomagenesis.

Differential tumor surveillance by natural killer (NK) and NKT cells.

Natural tumor surveillance capabilities of the host were investigated in six different mouse tumor models where endogenous interleukin (IL)-12 does or does not dictate the efficiency of the innate immune response. Gene-targeted and lymphocyte subset-depleted mice were used to establish the relative importance of natural killer (NK) and NK1.1(+) T (NKT) cells in protection from tumor initiation and metastasis. In the models examined, CD3(-) NK cells were responsible for tumor rejection and protection from metastasis in models where control of major histocompatibility complex class I-deficient tumors was independent of IL-12. A protective role for NKT cells was only observed when tumor rejection required endogenous IL-12 activity. In particular, T cell receptor Jalpha281 gene-targeted mice confirmed a critical function for NKT cells in protection from spontaneous tumors initiated by the chemical carcinogen, methylcholanthrene. This is the first description of an antitumor function for NKT cells in the absence of exogenously administered potent stimulators such as IL-12 or alpha-galactosylceramide.

In-situ, time resolved monitoring of uranium in BFS:OPC grout. Part 2: Corrosion in water.

To reflect potential conditions in a geological disposal facility, uranium was encapsulated in grout and submersed in de-ionised water for time periods between 2-47 weeks. Synchrotron X-ray Powder Diffraction and X-ray Tomography were used to identify the dominant corrosion products and measure their dimensions. Uranium dioxide was observed as the dominant corrosion product and time dependent thickness measurements were used to calculate oxidation rates. The effectiveness of physical and chemical grout properties to uranium corrosion and mobilisation is discussed and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry was used to measure 238U(aq) content in the residual water of several samples.

Novel approaches for the promotion of physical activity and exercise for prevention and management of type 2 diabetes.

Despite increased evidence for the importance of lifestyle modification, physical activity and diet in diabetes prevention and management, habitual physical activity levels have declined in recent decades in China and India. Further, other risk factors for type 2 diabetes, including overweight, obesity and physical inactivity, have also worsened. Here we present evidence for the importance of physical activity and exercise in the amelioration of type 2 diabetes and propose a novel approach to address the challenge of improving lifestyle behaviors in China and India-Movement is Medicine and a P4 (predictive, preventive, personalized and participatory) approach.

In-situ, time resolved monitoring of uranium in BFS:OPC grout. Part 1: Corrosion in water vapour.

Uranium encapsulated in grout was exposed to water vapour for extended periods of time. Through synchrotron x-ray powder diffraction and tomography measurements, uranium dioxide was determined the dominant corrosion product over a 50-week time period. The oxide growth rate initiated rapidly, with rates comparable to the U + H2O reaction. Over time, the reaction rate decreased and eventually plateaued to a rate similar to the U + H2O + O2 reaction. This behaviour was not attributed to oxygen ingress, but instead the decreasing permeability of the grout, limiting oxidising species access to the metal surface.

Prion protein genotype survey confirms low frequency of scrapie-resistant K222 allele in British goat herds.

Scrapie in goats is a transmissible, fatal prion disease, which is endemic in the British goat population. The recent success in defining caprine PRNP gene variants that provide resistance to experimental and natural classical scrapie has prompted the authors to conduct a survey of PRNP genotypes in 10 goat breeds and 52 herds to find goats with the resistant K222 allele. They report here the frequencies in 1236 tested animals of the resistance-associated K222 and several other alleles by breed and herd. Eight animals were found to be heterozygous QK222 goats (0.64 per cent genotype frequency, 95 per cent CI 0.28 to 1.27 per cent) but no homozygous KK222 goats were detected. The K222 allele was found in Saanen, Toggenburg and Anglo-Nubian goats. The fact that only a few goats with the K222 allele have been identified does not preclude the possibility to design and implement successful breeding programmes at national level.

An economical multi-channel cortical electrode array for extended periods of recording during behavior.

We report the development of a low-cost chronic multi-channel microwire electrode array for recording multi-unit cortical responses in behaving rodents. The design was motivated by three issues. First, standard connector systems tended to disconnect from the head-stage during extended periods of behavior. Disconnections resulted in a loss of data and an interruption of the animals' behavior. Second, the use of low insertion force connectors with locking mechanisms was cost prohibitive. Finally, connecting the head-stage to a skull-mounted connector on an unrestrained animal was highly stressful for both the researcher and animal. The design developed uses a high insertion force DIP socket separated from the skullcap that prevents inadvertent disconnects, is inexpensive, and simplifies connecting unrestrained rodents. Electrodes were implanted in layer IV of primary auditory cortex in 11 Sprague-Dawley rats. Performance of the electrodes was monitored for 6 weeks. None of the behaving animals became disconnected from the recording system during recording sessions lasting 6 h. The mean signal-to-noise ratio on all channels (154) following surgery was 3.9+/-0.2. Of the 154 channels implanted, 130 exhibited driven activity following surgery. Forty percent of the arrays continued to exhibit driven neural activity at 6 weeks.

Windows of opportunity for physical activity in the prevention of obesity.

Tackling increasing rates of obesity is likely to be a defining feature of health care over the next several decades. Adult obesity is a persistent and treatment-resistant problem. Consequently, an emerging theme in the literature is to commence prevention efforts earlier in the developmental time course. This view is based primarily on epidemiological data demonstrating a link between traits manifesting early during development and increased obesity risk in adulthood. Physical activity is a perennial factor in discussions of obesity prevention. However, the optimal timing and type of physical activity interventions to commence remains unclear. Critical developmental windows of plasticity may afford time-limited opportunities to shape body composition across the life course; however, physical activity has not been explicitly considered in these discussions. Although animal models suggest that physical activity commenced earlier in development has differential effects on obesity onset compared to physical activity commenced in adulthood, human research is lacking. In this conceptual review, we consider physical activity during critical developmental periods as a way to mitigate obesity risk later in life.

Experimental evidence for the co-evolution of hominin tool-making teaching and language.

Hominin reliance on Oldowan stone tools-which appear from 2.5 mya and are believed to have been socially transmitted-has been hypothesized to have led to the evolution of teaching and language. Here we present an experiment investigating the efficacy of transmission of Oldowan tool-making skills along chains of adult human participants (N=184) using five different transmission mechanisms. Across six measures, transmission improves with teaching, and particularly with language, but not with imitation or emulation. Our results support the hypothesis that hominin reliance on stone tool-making generated selection for teaching and language, and imply that (i) low-fidelity social transmission, such as imitation/emulation, may have contributed to the ~700,000 year stasis of the Oldowan technocomplex, and (ii) teaching or proto-language may have been pre-requisites for the appearance of Acheulean technology. This work supports a gradual evolution of language, with simple symbolic communication preceding behavioural modernity by hundreds of thousands of years.

1-(3-cyano-2,3-dideoxy-beta-D-erythro-pentofuranosyl)thymine (cyanothymidine): synthesis and antiviral evaluation against human immunodeficiency virus.

1-(3-Cyano-2,3-dideoxy-beta-D-erythro-pentofuranosyl)thymine (cyanothymidine) (3a) has been prepared by an unambiguous route starting from D-xylose. The relative and absolute stereochemistry of 3a and its anomeric isomer 9 have been confirmed by NOE experiments and by X-ray diffraction analysis. In antiviral tests vs HIV 3a was shown to be inactive, a surprising result in view of a preliminary disclosure claiming potent anti-HIV activity. The activity previously assigned to 3a is believed to be due to contamination of that sample with the known antiviral nucleoside analogue 5b.

Behavioral measures of vowel sensitivity in Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus): effects of age and genetic origin.

Absolute thresholds for complex vowel stimuli were compared in Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) as a function of age and genetic origin. For a group of 12-month-old 'domestic' gerbils obtained from Tumblebrook Farms, lowest thresholds averaging 14 dB SPL occurred for the vowel /alpha/, which had its most intense formant (F1) at 730 Hz. Thresholds increased to 22 dB SPL for /i/, which had its two most intense formants (F1 and F3) at 270 and 3000 Hz, respectively. Highest thresholds of 30 dB SPL occurred for /u/, which had its most intense formant (F1) at 300 Hz. Thresholds increased by about 10 dB per year through the ages of 12-36 months, with most of the loss occurring for /alpha/ and /u/. The domestic gerbils' /alpha/ thresholds corresponded well to those measured in aging gerbils in electrophysiological studies. Vowel thresholds were also measured in a group of first-generation offspring of 'wild' gerbils imported from Asia, first tested at the ages of 18-24 months. Thresholds were similar to those of the 12-month-old domestic gerbils, and showed no hearing loss with age up to 36 months. The wild gerbils were also free of ear impactions, which commonly occurred in the domestic gerbils. The hearing loss with age in the domestic gerbils may have a genetic basis, and might be due to inbreeding in the domestic strain, in contrast to the hybrid vigor of the wild gerbils.

Relationships between suicidal behavior and personality types.

This study examined the hypotheses that introversion in general and the introverted-intuitive-feeling-perceiving (INFP) type as measured by the Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator are related to suicidal ideation and behaviors. Analyses of data from 330 university students found four interactive suicidal behavior risk models: introverted-perceiving (IP) (females); introverted-sensing-feeling (ISF) (males); introverted-intuitive-perceiving (INP) (males); extraverted-intuitive-judging (ENJ) (males). Study findings were interpreted in terms of implications for risk assessment and intervention.

Athletic Medical Insurance Practices at NCAA Division I Institutions.

As the cost of athletic medical insurance continues to rise, athletic departments are searching for ways to continue to provide quality insurance coverage while keeping costs contained. There are few published articles dealing with the specific topic of the daily operations of maintaining an athletic medical insurance program. We sent an 18-item questionnaire to the 295 active NCAA Division I head athletic trainers to ascertain the current trends in athletic medical insurance. Of these, 207 (70%) responded. Of the respondents, 85% were primarily responsible for the administration of their athletic department's insurance coverage, although they had received no formal training in insurance management. Most athletic departments carry secondary policies and many report having a deductible. A wide range of insurance coverage and premiums were reported.

The fluoroscope in a traditional sports medicine setting.

Using a fluoroscope in a sports medicine setting is a new innovation. By using a hand-held portable fluoroscope, radiographic imaging can be done in the athletic training room or at an on-site athletic location. The fluoroscope produces a high-quality, realtime image. This is accomplished immediately, without the delay time and expense involved when the injured athlete is referred to an emergency facility. Through the use of the fluoroscope, a definite diagnosis can be made, and treatment can begin immediately. The fluoroscope has proven to be cost-effective, not only by decreasing radiographic expenses, but also by decreasing the time commitment of both the athlete and the athletic trainer.

Feedback and self-concept in high school students.

This study examined the relationship between self-concept and feedback in high school seniors. Students evaluated themselves on ten traits, and were asked to then have five significant others evaluate them on the same ten traits. After reviewing their average feedback scores, students again evaluated themselves. Results indicated a strong relationship between feedback and self-concept for all traits, with none indicating a stronger relationship than any other.

Review, critique, and guidelines for the use of herbs and homeopathy.

The number of Americans that use alternative therapies, including herbal products, is increasing by overwhelming proportions. Hundreds of herbal products and homeopathic remedies are available to the consumer, but most of these have not been proved safe or effective. Consumers are now turning to their health care provider for guidance concerning the quality, proper use, adverse effects, and precautions associated with these products. Health care providers must develop a thorough understanding of the available literature concerning herbal products and homeopathy to provide patients with truthful, unbiased information regarding the potential risks and benefits of each herbal product. This article addresses the distinct difference between herbalism and homeopathy, the importance of standardization, and general use precautions concerning herbal products.

The clinical applications of Ginkgo biloba, St. John's wort, saw palmetto, and soy.

The use of herbal or alternative therapies continues to increase each year. This article extensively reviews four of the more commonly used herbs and dietary supplements: ginkgo biloba, St. John's wort, saw palmetto, and soy. The pharmacology, precautions, therapeutic uses, and adverse effects for each of these therapies are discussed.