MAPT haplotype-stratified GWAS reveals differential association for AD risk variants.

INTRODUCTION: MAPT H1 haplotype is implicated as a risk factor for neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD). METHODS: Using Alzheimer's Disease Genetics Consortium (ADGC) genome-wide association study (GWAS) data (n = 18,841), we conducted a MAPT H1/H2 haplotype-stratified association to discover MAPT haplotype-specific AD risk loci. RESULTS: We identified 11 loci-5 in H2-non-carriers and 6 in H2-carriers-although none of the MAPT haplotype-specific associations achieved genome-wide significance. The most significant H2 non-carrier-specific association was with a NECTIN2 intronic (P = 1.33E-07) variant, and that for H2 carriers was near NKX6-1 (P = 1.99E-06). The GABRG2 locus had the strongest epistasis with MAPT H1/H2 variant rs8070723 (P = 3.91E-06). Eight of the 12 genes at these loci had transcriptome-wide significant differential expression in AD versus control temporal cortex (q < 0.05). Six genes were members of the brain transcriptional co-expression network implicated in "synaptic transmission" (P = 9.85E-59), which is also enriched for neuronal genes (P = 1.0E-164), including MAPT. DISCUSSION: This stratified GWAS identified loci that may confer AD risk in a MAPT haplotype-specific manner. This approach may preferentially enrich for neuronal genes implicated in synaptic transmission.

Divergent brain gene expression patterns associate with distinct cell-specific tau neuropathology traits in progressive supranuclear palsy.

Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) is a neurodegenerative parkinsonian disorder characterized by tau pathology in neurons and glial cells. Transcriptional regulation has been implicated as a potential mechanism in conferring disease risk and neuropathology for some PSP genetic risk variants. However, the role of transcriptional changes as potential drivers of distinct cell-specific tau lesions has not been explored. In this study, we integrated brain gene expression measurements, quantitative neuropathology traits and genome-wide genotypes from 268 autopsy-confirmed PSP patients to identify transcriptional associations with unique cell-specific tau pathologies. We provide individual transcript and transcriptional network associations for quantitative oligodendroglial (coiled bodies = CB), neuronal (neurofibrillary tangles = NFT), astrocytic (tufted astrocytes = TA) tau pathology, and tau threads and genomic annotations of these findings. We identified divergent patterns of transcriptional associations for the distinct tau lesions, with the neuronal and astrocytic neuropathologies being the most different. We determined that NFT are positively associated with a brain co-expression network enriched for synaptic and PSP candidate risk genes, whereas TA are positively associated with a microglial gene-enriched immune network. In contrast, TA is negatively associated with synaptic and NFT with immune system transcripts. Our findings have implications for the diverse molecular mechanisms that underlie cell-specific vulnerability and disease risk in PSP.

Conserved brain myelination networks are altered in Alzheimer's and other neurodegenerative diseases.

INTRODUCTION: Comparative transcriptome analyses in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other neurodegenerative proteinopathies can uncover both shared and distinct disease pathways. METHODS: We analyzed 940 brain transcriptomes including patients with AD, progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP; a primary tauopathy), and control subjects. RESULTS: We identified transcriptional coexpression networks implicated in myelination, which were lower in PSP temporal cortex (TCX) compared with AD. Some of these associations were retained even after adjustments for brain cell population changes. These TCX myelination network structures were preserved in cerebellum but they were not differentially expressed in cerebellum between AD and PSP. Myelination networks were downregulated in both AD and PSP, when compared with control TCX samples. DISCUSSION: Downregulation of myelination networks may underlie both PSP and AD pathophysiology, but may be more pronounced in PSP. These data also highlight conservation of transcriptional networks across brain regions and the influence of cell type changes on these networks.

A candidate regulatory variant at the TREM gene cluster associates with decreased Alzheimer's disease risk and increased TREML1 and TREM2 brain gene expression.

INTRODUCTION: We hypothesized that common Alzheimer's disease (AD)-associated variants within the triggering receptor expressed on myeloid (TREM) gene cluster influence disease through gene expression. METHODS: Expression microarrays on temporal cortex and cerebellum from ∼400 neuropathologically diagnosed subjects and two independent RNAseq replication cohorts were used for expression quantitative trait locus analysis. RESULTS: A variant within a DNase hypersensitive site 5' of TREM2, rs9357347-C, associates with reduced AD risk and increased TREML1 and TREM2 levels (uncorrected P = 6.3 × 10-3 and 4.6 × 10-2, respectively). Meta-analysis on expression quantitative trait locus results from three independent data sets (n = 1006) confirmed these associations (uncorrected P = 3.4 × 10-2 and 3.5 × 10-3, Bonferroni-corrected P = 6.7 × 10-2 and 7.1 × 10-3, respectively). DISCUSSION: Our findings point to rs9357347 as a functional regulatory variant that contributes to a protective effect observed at the TREM locus in the International Genomics of Alzheimer's Project genome-wide association study meta-analysis and suggest concomitant increase in TREML1 and TREM2 brain levels as a potential mechanism for protection from AD.

Spatiotemporal dynamics of simian immunodeficiency virus brain infection in CD8+ lymphocyte-depleted rhesus macaques with neuroAIDS.

Despite the success of combined antiretroviral therapy in controlling viral replication in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected individuals, HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders, commonly referred to as neuroAIDS, remain a frequent and poorly understood complication. Infection of CD8(+) lymphocyte-depleted rhesus macaques with the SIVmac251 viral swarm is a well-established rapid disease model of neuroAIDS that has provided critical insight into HIV-1-associated neurocognitive disorder onset and progression. However, no studies so far have characterized in depth the relationship between intra-host viral evolution and pathogenesis in this model. Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) env gp120 sequences were obtained from six infected animals. Sequences were sampled longitudinally from several lymphoid and non-lymphoid tissues, including individual lobes within the brain at necropsy, for four macaques; two animals were sacrificed at 21 days post-infection (p.i.) to evaluate early viral seeding of the brain. Bayesian phylodynamic and phylogeographic analyses of the sequence data were used to ascertain viral population dynamics and gene flow between peripheral and brain tissues, respectively. A steady increase in viral effective population size, with a peak occurring at ~50-80 days p.i., was observed across all longitudinally monitored macaques. Phylogeographic analysis indicated continual viral seeding of the brain from several peripheral tissues throughout infection, with the last migration event before terminal illness occurring in all macaques from cells within the bone marrow. The results strongly supported the role of infected bone marrow cells in HIV/SIV neuropathogenesis. In addition, our work demonstrated the applicability of Bayesian phylogeography to intra-host studies in order to assess the interplay between viral evolution and pathogenesis.

Longitudinal analysis of intra-host simian immunodeficiency virus recombination in varied tissues of the rhesus macaque model for neuroAIDS.

Human immunodeficiency virus intra-host recombination has never been studied in vivo both during early infection and throughout disease progression. The CD8-depleted rhesus macaque model of neuroAIDS was used to investigate the impact of recombination from early infection up to the onset of neuropathology in animals inoculated with a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) swarm. Several lymphoid and non-lymphoid tissues were collected longitudinally at 21 days post-infection (p.i.), 61 days p.i. and necropsy (75-118 days p.i.) from four macaques that developed SIV-encephalitis or meningitis, as well as from two animals euthanized at 21 days p.i. The number of recombinant sequences and breakpoints in different tissues and over time from each primate were compared. Breakpoint locations were mapped onto predicted RNA and protein secondary structures. Recombinants were found at each time point and in each primate as early as 21 days p.i. No association was found between recombination rates and specific tissue of origin. Several identical breakpoints were identified in sequences derived from different tissues in the same primate and among different primates. Breakpoints predominantly mapped to unpaired nucleotides or pseudoknots in RNA secondary structures, and proximal to glycosylation sites and cysteine residues in protein sequences, suggesting selective advantage in the emergence of specific recombinant sequences. Results indicate that recombinant sequences can become fixed very early after infection with a heterogeneous viral swarm. Features of RNA and protein secondary structure appear to play a role in driving the production of recombinants and their selection in the rapid disease model of neuroAIDS.

Unexpected maintenance of hepatitis C viral diversity following liver transplantation.

Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection can lead to liver cirrhosis in up to 20% of individuals, often requiring liver transplantation. Although the new liver is known to be rapidly reinfected, the dynamics and source of the reinfecting virus(es) are unclear, resulting in some confusion concerning the relationship between clinical outcome and viral characteristics. To clarify the dynamics of liver reinfection, longitudinal serum viral samples from 10 transplant patients were studied. Part of the E1/E2 region was sequenced, and advanced phylogenetic analysis methods were used in a multiparameter analysis to determine the history and ancestry of reinfecting lineages. Our results demonstrated the complexity of HCV evolutionary dynamics after liver transplantation, in which a large diverse population of viruses is transmitted and maintained for months to years. As many as 30 independent lineages in a single patient were found to reinfect the new liver. Several later posttransplant lineages were more closely related to older pretransplant viruses than to viruses detected immediately after transplantation. Although our data are consistent with a number of interpretations, the persistence of high viral genetic variation over long periods of time requires an active mechanism. We discuss possible scenarios, including frequency-dependent selection or variation in selective pressure among viral subpopulations, i.e., the population structure. The latter hypothesis, if correct, could have relevance to the success of newer direct-acting antiviral therapies.

Efficient transmission and persistence of low-frequency SIVmac251 variants in CD8-depleted rhesus macaques with different neuropathology.

Infection of CD8-depleted rhesus macaques with the genetically heterogeneous simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)mac251 viral swarm provides a rapid-disease model for simian acquired immune deficiency syndrome and SIV-encephalitis (SIVE). The objective was to evaluate how the diversity of the swarm influences the initial seeding of the infection that may potentially affect disease progression. Plasma, lymphoid and non-lymphoid (brain and lung) tissues were collected from two infected macaques euthanized at 21 days post-infection (p.i.), as well as longitudinal specimens and post-mortem tissues from four macaques followed throughout the infection. About 1300 gp120 viral sequences were obtained from the infecting SIVmac251 swarm and the macaques longitudinal and post-mortem samples. Phylogenetic and amino acid signature pattern analyses were carried out to assess frequency, transmission dynamics and persistence of specific viral clusters. Although no significant reduction in viral heterogeneity was found early in infection (21 days p.i.), transmission and replication of SIV variants was not entirely random. In particular, two distinct motifs under-represented (<4 %) in the infecting swarm were found at high frequencies (up to 14 %) in all six macaques as early as 21 days p.i. Moreover, a macrophage tropic variant not detected in the viral swarm (<0.3 %) was present at high frequency (29-100 %) in sequences derived from the brain of two macaques with meningitis or severe SIVE. This study demonstrates the highly efficient transmission and persistence in vivo of multiple low frequency SIVmac251 founder variants, characterized by specific gp120 motifs that may be linked to pathogenesis in the rapid-disease model of neuroAIDS.

Clinical Deep Phenotyping of ABCA7 Mutation Carriers.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Putative loss-of-function (pLOF) ABCA7 variants that increase Alzheimer disease (AD) risk were identified; however, deep phenotypic characterization of these variants in mutation carriers is limited. We aimed to obtain deep clinical phenotypes of ABCA7 pLOF mutation carriers from a large retrospectively reviewed series. METHODS: Genotypes were determined for 5,353 individuals evaluated at Mayo Clinic for 6 reported ABCA7 pLOF variants (p.E709fs, p.Trp1214X, p.L1403fs, c.4416+2T>G, p.E1679X, and c.5570+5G>C). Medical records of 100 mutation carriers were reviewed for demographics, clinical phenotypes, and diagnoses. Eleven mutation carriers had autopsy-based neuropathologic diagnoses. RESULTS: We confirmed that ABCA7 pLOF mutations confer AD risk in our series of 2,495 participants with AD and 2,858 cognitively unaffected participants. Clinical review of 100 mutation carriers demonstrated phenotypic variability of clinical presentations with both memory and nonmemory cognitive impairment and a subset presenting with motor symptoms. There was a wide range of age at onset of cognitive symptoms (ages 56-92 years, mean = 75.6). Ten of the 11 autopsied mutation carriers had AD neuropathology. ABCA7 pLOF mutation carriers had higher rates of depression (41.6%) and first-degree relatives with cognitive impairment (38.1%) compared with the general population. DISCUSSION: Our study provides a deep clinical review of phenotypic characteristics of mutation carriers for 6 ABCA7 pLOF mutations. Although memory impairment was the most common initial symptom, nonmemory cognitive and/or motor symptoms were present in a substantial number of mutation carriers, highlighting the heterogeneity of clinical features associated with these mutations. Likewise, although AD neuropathology is the most common, it is not the only autopsy-based diagnosis. Presence of earlier ages at onset, higher rates of depression, and first-degree relatives with cognitive impairment among mutation carriers suggest that these genetic variants may have more aggressive clinical features than AD in the general population. This deep phenotyping study of ABCA7 pLOF mutation carriers provides essential genotype-phenotype correlations for future precision medicine approaches in the clinical setting.

A Rare Case of Spinal Mastocytosis Presenting as an Extradural Mass.

BACKGROUND: Systemic mastocytosis is a hematopoietic disorder of mast cell deposits in various systemic tissues that can include skin, spleen, liver, and bone marrow. When accumulation occurs within bone it has been reported to cause osteoporosis, osteosclerosis, or sometimes a mixed pattern. In exceptionally rare circumstances, it has been reported to present as an exophytic mass causing neural compression. CASE DESCRIPTION: A 72-year-old man was admitted with progressive worsening in his mobility and heavy and numb sensation in his bilateral lower limbs that worsened on walking. His weakness subsequently progressed such that he was no longer able to mobilize for 48 hours prior to admission. On examination he was found to be myelopathic with a sensory level noted at approximately the T10/11 area. Whole spine magnetic resonance imaging was conducted, which revealed a heterogeneous lesion involving the vertebral body and posterior elements of T10. The patient underwent T9-T11 laminecetomy with intralesional debulking of metastatic spinal column tumor. Postoperatively, the patient was noted to have improved anti-gravity power in the lower limbs. Intraoperative biopsy samples revealed focal paratrabecular infiltrates of abnormal mast cells with collagen fibrosis and focal bone destruction, along with cytogenetic features in keeping with systemic mastocytosis. CONCLUSIONS: We describe a rare case of systemic mastocytosis presenting as an extradural lesion causing compressive myelopathy and paraparesis. To our knowledge, this has only been described once before in literature. The patient underwent decompression surgery with improvement in neurology postoperatively. He was subsequently referred to the hematology team for further investigation and management.

Phyloanatomic characterization of the distinct T cell and monocyte contributions to the peripheral blood HIV population within the host.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a rapidly evolving virus, allowing its genetic sequence to act as a fingerprint for epidemiological processes among, as well as within, individual infected hosts. Though primarily infecting the CD4+ T-cell population, HIV can also be found in monocytes, an immune cell population that differs in several aspects from the canonical T-cell viral target. Using single genome viral sequencing and statistical phylogenetic inference, we investigated the viral RNA diversity and relative contribution of each of these immune cell types to the viral population within the peripheral blood. Results provide evidence of an increased prevalence of circulating monocytes harboring virus in individuals with high viral load in the absence of suppressive antiretroviral therapy. Bayesian phyloanatomic analysis of three of these individuals demonstrated a measurable role for these cells, but not the circulating T-cell population, as a source of cell-free virus in the plasma, supporting the hypothesis that these cells can act as an additional conduit of virus spread.

Association of ABI3 and PLCG2 missense variants with disease risk and neuropathology in Lewy body disease and progressive supranuclear palsy.

Missense variants ABI3_rs616338-T and PLCG2_rs72824905-G were previously associated with elevated or reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD), respectively. Despite reports of associations with other neurodegenerative diseases, there are few studies of these variants in purely neuropathologically diagnosed cohorts. Further, the effect of these mutations on neurodegenerative disease pathologies is unknown. In this study, we tested the effects of ABI3_rs616338-T and PLCG2_rs72824905-G on disease risk in autopsy cohorts comprised of 973 patients diagnosed neuropathologically with Lewy body disease (LBD-NP) and 1040 with progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), compared to 3351 controls. LBD-NP patients were further categorized as high, intermediate and low likelihood of clinical dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB-CL) based on DLB Consortium criteria. We also tested for association with both Braak neurofibrillary tau tangle (nTotal = 2008, nPSP = 1037, nLBD-NP = 971) and Thal phase amyloid plaque scores (nTotal = 1786, nPSP = 1018, nLBD-NP = 768). Additionally, 841 PSP patients had quantitative tau neuropathology measures that were assessed for genetic associations. There was no statistically significant association with disease risk for either LBD-NP or PSP in our study. LBD intermediate category disease risk was significantly associated with ABI3_rs616338-T (OR = 2.65, 95% CI 1.46-4.83, p = 0.001). PLCG2_rs72824905-G was associated with lower Braak stage (ß = - 0.822, 95% CI - 1.439 to - 0.204, p = 0.009). This effect was more pronounced in the PSP (ß = - 0.995, 95% CI - 1.773 to - 0.218, p = 0.012) than LBD-NP patients (ß = - 0.292, 95% CI - 1.283 to 0.698, p = 0.563). PLCG2_rs72824905-G also showed association with reduced quantitative tau pathology for each lesion type and overall tau burden in PSP (ß = - 0.638, 95% CI - 1.139 to - 0.136, p = 0.013). These findings support a role for PLCG2_rs72824905-G in suppressing tau neuropathology. ABI3_rs616338-T may influence disease risk specifically in the LBD-NP intermediate category comprised of patients with diffuse neocortical or limbic LB, concurrently with moderate or high AD neuropathology, respectively. Our study provides a potential mechanism of action for the missense PLCG2 variant and suggests a differential disease risk effect for ABI3 in a distinct LBD-NP neuropathologic category.

ABI3 and PLCG2 missense variants as risk factors for neurodegenerative diseases in Caucasians and African Americans.

BACKGROUND: Rare coding variants ABI3_rs616338-T and PLCG2_rs72824905-G were identified as risk or protective factors, respectively, for Alzheimer's disease (AD). METHODS: We tested the association of these variants with five neurodegenerative diseases in Caucasian case-control cohorts: 2742 AD, 231 progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), 838 Parkinson's disease (PD), 306 dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and 150 multiple system atrophy (MSA) vs. 3351 controls; and in an African-American AD case-control cohort (181 AD, 331 controls). 1479 AD and 1491 controls were non-overlapping with a prior report. RESULTS: Using Fisher's exact test, there was significant association of both ABI3_rs616338-T (OR = 1.41, p = 0.044) and PLCG2_rs72824905-G (OR = 0.56, p = 0.008) with AD. These OR estimates were maintained in the non-overlapping replication AD-control analysis, albeit at reduced significance (ABI3_rs616338-T OR = 1.44, p = 0.12; PLCG2_rs72824905-G OR = 0.66, p = 0.19). None of the other cohorts showed significant associations that were concordant with those for AD, although the DLB cohort had suggestive findings (Fisher's test: ABI3_rs616338-T OR = 1.79, p = 0.097; PLCG2_rs72824905-G OR = 0.32, p = 0.124). PLCG2_rs72824905-G showed suggestive association with pathologically-confirmed MSA (OR = 2.39, p = 0.050) and PSP (OR = 1.97, p = 0.061), although in the opposite direction of that for AD. We assessed RNA sequencing data from 238 temporal cortex (TCX) and 224 cerebellum (CER) samples from AD, PSP and control patients and identified co-expression networks, enriched in microglial genes and immune response GO terms, and which harbor PLCG2 and/or ABI3. These networks had higher expression in AD, but not in PSP TCX, compared to controls. This expression association did not survive adjustment for brain cell type population changes. CONCLUSIONS: We validated the associations previously reported with ABI3_rs616338-T and PLCG2_rs72824905-G in a Caucasian AD case-control cohort, and observed a similar direction of effect in DLB. Conversely, PLCG2_rs72824905-G showed suggestive associations with PSP and MSA in the opposite direction. We identified microglial gene-enriched co-expression networks with significantly higher levels in AD TCX, but not in PSP, a primary tauopathy. This co-expression network association appears to be driven by microglial cell population changes in a brain region affected by AD pathology. Although these findings require replication in larger cohorts, they suggest distinct effects of the microglial genes, ABI3 and PLCG2 in neurodegenerative diseases that harbor significant vs. low/no amyloid ß pathology.

Interactive effects of temperature and UVB radiation on methane emissions from different organs of pea plants grown in hydroponic system.

There is no information on variation of methane (CH4) emissions from plant organs exposed to multiple environmental factors. We investigated the interactive effects of temperature and ultraviolet-B (UVB) radiation on CH4 emissions from different organs of pea (Pisum sativum L. var. UT234 Lincoln). Plants were grown hydroponically under two temperatures (22/18°C and 28/24°C; 16h day/8h night) and two levels of UVB radiation [0 and 5kJm-2 d-1] in controlled-environment growth chambers for ten days, after two weeks of initial growth under ambient temperatures. Methane emission, dry mass, growth index, electrical conductivity (EC), pectin, total chlorophyll content, gas exchange and flavonoids were measured in the appropriate plant organs - leaf, stem and root. Higher temperatures increased CH4 emissions, leaf mass ratio, and shoot: root mass ratio. Neither temperature nor UVB had significant effects on leaf, stem, root and total dry mass, EC, pectin, total chlorophyll, as well as specific leaf mass. Among plant organs, there were differences in CH4, EC, pectin and total chlorophyll. Methane and EC were highest for the stem and lowest for the leaf; leaf had highest, but stem had lowest, pectin content; total chlorophyll was highest in the leaf but lowest in the root. Higher temperatures decreased leaf flavonoids, net carbon dioxide assimilation, and water use efficiency. Overall, environmental stressors increased aerobic CH4 emission rates, which varied with plant organs.

Disasters; the 2010 Haitian earthquake and the evacuation of burn victims to US burn centers.

Response to the 2010 Haitian earthquake included an array of diverse yet critical actions. This paper will briefly review the evacuation of a small group of patients with burns to burn centers in the southeastern United States (US). This particular evacuation brought together for the first time plans, groups, and organizations that had previously only exercised this process. The response to the Haitian earthquake was a glimpse at what the international community working together can do to help others, and relieve suffering following a catastrophic disaster. The international response was substantial. This paper will trace one evacuation, one day for one unique group of patients with burns to burn centers in the US and review the lessons learned from this process. The patient population with burns being evacuated from Haiti was very small compared to the overall operation. Nevertheless, the outcomes included a better understanding of how a larger event could challenge the limited resources for all involved. This paper includes aspects of the patient movement, the logistics needed, and briefly discusses reimbursement for the care provided.

Phylodynamic analysis of clinical and environmental Vibrio cholerae isolates from Haiti reveals diversification driven by positive selection.

UNLABELLED: Phylodynamic analysis of genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data is a powerful tool to investigate underlying evolutionary processes of bacterial epidemics. The method was applied to investigate a collection of 65 clinical and environmental isolates of Vibrio cholerae from Haiti collected between 2010 and 2012. Characterization of isolates recovered from environmental samples identified a total of four toxigenic V. cholerae O1 isolates, four non-O1/O139 isolates, and a novel nontoxigenic V. cholerae O1 isolate with the classical tcpA gene. Phylogenies of strains were inferred from genome-wide SNPs using coalescent-based demographic models within a Bayesian framework. A close phylogenetic relationship between clinical and environmental toxigenic V. cholerae O1 strains was observed. As cholera spread throughout Haiti between October 2010 and August 2012, the population size initially increased and then fluctuated over time. Selection analysis along internal branches of the phylogeny showed a steady accumulation of synonymous substitutions and a progressive increase of nonsynonymous substitutions over time, suggesting diversification likely was driven by positive selection. Short-term accumulation of nonsynonymous substitutions driven by selection may have significant implications for virulence, transmission dynamics, and even vaccine efficacy. IMPORTANCE: Cholera, a dehydrating diarrheal disease caused by toxigenic strains of the bacterium Vibrio cholerae, emerged in 2010 in Haiti, a country where there were no available records on cholera over the past 100 years. While devastating in terms of morbidity and mortality, the outbreak provided a unique opportunity to study the evolutionary dynamics of V. cholerae and its environmental presence. The present study expands on previous work and provides an in-depth phylodynamic analysis inferred from genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphisms of clinical and environmental strains from dispersed geographic settings in Haiti over a 2-year period. Our results indicate that even during such a short time scale, V. cholerae in Haiti has undergone evolution and diversification driven by positive selection, which may have implications for understanding the global clinical and epidemiological patterns of the disease. Furthermore, the continued presence of the epidemic strain in Haitian aquatic environments has implications for transmission.

Significant genetic heterogeneity of the SIVmac251 viral swarm derived from different sources.

Infecting rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) with the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) is an established animal model of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) pathogenesis. Many studies have used various derivatives of the SIVmac251 viral swarm to investigate several aspects of the disease, including transmission, progression, response to vaccination, and SIV/HIV-associated neurological disorders. However, the lack of standardization of the infecting inoculum complicates comparative analyses. We investigated the genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships of the 1991 animal-titered SIVmac251 swarm, the peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) passaged SIVmac251, and additional SIVmac251 sequences derived over the past 20 years. Significant sequence divergence and diversity were evident among the different viral sources. This finding highlights the importance of characterizing the exact source and genetic makeup of the infecting inoculum to achieve controlled experimental conditions and enable meaningful comparisons across studies.