Dynamic integration of forward planning and heuristic preferences during multiple goal pursuit.

Selecting goals and successfully pursuing them in an uncertain and dynamic environment is an important aspect of human behaviour. In order to decide which goal to pursue at what point in time, one has to evaluate the consequences of one's actions over future time steps by forward planning. However, when the goal is still temporally distant, detailed forward planning can be prohibitively costly. One way to select actions at minimal computational costs is to use heuristics. It is an open question how humans mix heuristics with forward planning to balance computational costs with goal reaching performance. To test a hypothesis about dynamic mixing of heuristics with forward planning, we used a novel stochastic sequential two-goal task. Comparing participants' decisions with an optimal full planning agent, we found that at the early stages of goal-reaching sequences, in which both goals are temporally distant and planning complexity is high, on average 42% (SD = 19%) of participants' choices deviated from the agent's optimal choices. Only towards the end of the sequence, participant's behaviour converged to near optimal performance. Subsequent model-based analyses showed that participants used heuristic preferences when the goal was temporally distant and switched to forward planning when the goal was close.

No relation of Need for Cognition to basic executive functions.

OBJECTIVE: Need for Cognition (NFC) refers to a personality trait describing the relatively stable intrinsic motivation of individuals to invest cognitive effort in cognitive endeavors. Higher NFC is associated with a more elaborated, central information processing style and increased recruitment of resources in cognitively demanding situations. To further clarify the association between cognitive resources and NFC, we examined in two studies how NFC relates to executive functions as basic cognitive abilities. METHOD: In Study 1, 189 healthy young adults completed an NFC scale and a battery of six commonly used inhibitory control tasks (Stroop, antisaccade, stop-signal, flanker, shape-matching, word-naming). In Study 2, 102 healthy young adults completed the NFC scale and two tasks for each of the three executive functions inhibitory control (go-nogo, stop-signal), shifting (number-letter, color-shape), and working memory updating (two-back, letter-memory). RESULTS: Using a Bayesian approach to correlation analysis, we found no conclusive evidence that NFC was related to any executive function measure. Instead, we obtained even moderate evidence for the null hypothesis. CONCLUSIONS: Both studies add to more recent findings that shape the understanding of NFC as a trait that is less characterized by increased cognitive control abilities but rather by increased willingness to invest effort and exert self-control via motivational processes.

Uranium(VI) Complexes of Glutathione Disulfide Forming in Aqueous Solution.

The interactions between glutathione disulfide, GSSG, the redox partner and dimer of the intracellular detoxification agent glutathione, GSH, and hexavalent uranium, U(VI), were extensively studied by solution NMR (in D2O), complemented by time-resolved laser-induced fluorescence and IR spectroscopies. As expected for the hard Lewis acid U(VI), coordination facilitates by the ligands' O-donor carboxyl groups. However, owing to the adjacent cationic α-amino group, the glutamyl-COO reveal monodentate binding, while the COO of the glycyl residues show bidentate coordination. The log K value for the reaction UO22+ + H3GSSG- → UO2(H3GSSG)+ (pH 3, 0.1 M NaClO4) was determined for the first time, being 4.81 ± 0.08; extrapolation to infinite dilution gave log K⊖ = 5.24 ± 0.08. U(VI) and GSSG form precipitates in the whole pD range studied (2-8), showing least solubility for 4 < pD < 6.5. Thus, particularly GSSG, hereby representing also other peptides and small proteins, affects the mobility of U(VI), strongly depending on the speciation of either component.

Impact of FAAH genetic variation on fronto-amygdala function during emotional processing.

Recent translational studies identified a common endocannabinoid polymorphism, FAAH C385A, in the gene for the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). This polymorphism alters endocannabinoid anandamide levels, which are known to be involved in the fronto-amygdala circuitry implicated in mood regulation and anxiety-like behaviors. While it has been shown that the variant that selectively enhances fronto-amygdala connectivity at rest is associated with decreased anxiety-like behaviors, no study so far has investigated whether this finding of FAAH-related differential plasticity extends to task-related differential functional expression and regulation during negative emotional processing. Using an imaging genetics approach, this study aimed to replicate and extend prior findings by examining functional activity and task-related connectivity in fronto-amygdala regions during emotion reactivity and emotional down-regulation of negative affect. Therefore, 48 healthy young adults underwent a functional MRI resting state measurement, completed an emotion regulation paradigm and provided self-reports on anxiety and use of emotion regulation strategies. In line with previous studies, preliminary evidence suggests that A-allele carriers demonstrate stronger fronto-amygdala connectivity during rest. In addition, exploratory whole-brain analyses indicate differential functional activity of A-allele carriers during emotion reactivity and emotion regulation. There were no associations with anxiety-related self-reports and use of emotional regulation strategies. Further research using larger samples and polygenic approaches is indicated to clarify the precise role and its underlying mechanisms in emotion processing.

Genetic variation in serotonin function impacts on altruistic punishment in the ultimatum game: A longitudinal approach.

Growing evidence demonstrates that the serotonin system influences punishment behavior in social decision-making and that individual differences in the propensity to punish are, at least in part, due to genetic variation. However, the specific genes and their mechanisms by which they influence punishment behavior are not yet fully characterized. Here, we examined whether serotonin system-related gene variation impacts on altruistic punishment in the ultimatum game by using a longitudinal approach with three time points, covering a time frame up to four months in young adults (N = 106). Specifically, we investigated additive effects of 5-HTTLPR and TPH2 G-703T genotypes by using a composite score. This composite score was significantly associated with altruistic punishment, with individuals carrying both the S-allele and the G-allele demonstrating less punishment behavior. The results suggest that serotonin system-related gene variation contributes to individual differences in altruistic punishment. Furthermore, comparably high test-retest correlations suggest that punishment behavior in the ultimatum game represents a relatively stable, trait-like behavior.

The not-so-bitter pill: Effects of combined oral contraceptives on peripheral physiological indicators of emotional reactivity.

Combined oral contraceptives (COC) are used by millions of women worldwide. Although findings are not entirely consistent, COC have been found to impact on brain function and, thus, to modulate affective processes. Here, we investigated electro-physiological responses to emotional stimuli in free cycling women in both the early follicular and late luteal phase as well as in COC users. Skin conductance response (SCR), startle reflex, corrugator and zygomaticus activity were assessed. COC users showed reduced overall startle magnitude and SCR amplitude, but heightened overall zygomaticus activity, although effect sizes were small. Thus, COC users displayed reduced physiological reactions indicating negative affect and enhanced physiological responses signifying positive affect. In free cycling women, endogenous 17ß-estradiol levels were associated with fear potentiated startle in both cycle phases as well as with SCR and zygomaticus activity during the follicular phase. Testosterone was associated with corrugator and zygomaticus activity during the luteal phase, while progesterone levels correlated with corrugator activity in the follicular phase. To the contrary, in COC users, endogenous hormones were not associated with electro-physiological measures. The results further underscore the importance of considering COC use in psychophysiological studies on emotional processing.

The interplay between feedback-related negativity and individual differences in altruistic punishment: An EEG study.

To date, the interplay betwexen neurophysiological and individual difference factors in altruistic punishment has been little understood. To examine this issue, 45 individuals participated in a Dictator Game with punishment option while the feedback-related negativity (FRN) was derived from the electroencephalogram (EEG). Unlike previous EEG studies on the Dictator Game, we introduced a third party condition to study the effect of fairness norm violations in addition to employing a first person perspective. For the first time, we also examined the role of individual differences, specifically fairness concerns, positive/negative affectivity, and altruism/empathy as well as recipients' financial situation during altruistic punishment. The main results show that FRN amplitudes were more pronounced for unfair than for fair assignments in both the first person and third party perspectives. These findings suggest that FRN amplitudes are sensitive to fairness norm violations and play a crucial role in the recipients' evaluation of dictator assignments. With respect to individual difference factors, recipients' current financial situation affected the FRN fairness effect in the first person perspective, indicating that when being directly affected by the assignments, more affluent participants experienced stronger violations of expectations in altruistic punishment decisions. Regarding individual differences in trait empathy, in the third party condition FRN amplitudes were more pronounced for those who scored lower in empathy. This may suggest empathy as another motive in third party punishment. Independent of the perspective taken, higher positive affect was associated with more punishment behavior, suggesting that positive emotions may play an important role in restoring violated fairness norms.

Variation in key genes of serotonin and norepinephrine function predicts gamma-band activity during goal-directed attention.

Recent evidence shows that genetic variations in key regulators of serotonergic (5-HT) signaling explain variance in executive tasks, which suggests modulatory actions of 5-HT on goal-directed selective attention as one possible underlying mechanism. To investigate this link, 130 volunteers were genotyped for the 5-HT transporter gene-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) and for a variation (TPH2-703 G/T) of the TPH2 gene coding for the rate-limiting enzyme of 5-HT synthesis in the brain. Additionally, a functional polymorphism of the norepinephrine transporter gene (NET -3081 A/T) was considered, which was recently found to predict attention and working memory processes in interaction with serotonergic genes. The flanker-based Attention Network Test was used to assess goal-directed attention and the efficiency of attentional networks. Event-related gamma-band activity served to indicate selective attention at the intermediate phenotype level. The main findings were that 5-HTTLPR s allele and TPH2 G-allele homozygotes showed increased induced gamma-band activity during target processing when combined with the NET A/A genotype compared with other genotype combinations, and that gamma activity mediates the genotype-specific effects on task performance. The results further support a modulatory role of 5-HT and NE function in the top-down attentional selection of motivationally relevant over competing or irrelevant sensory input.

Individual differences in inhibitory control are not related to downregulation of negative emotion via distancing.

Evidence suggests that cognitive control and emotional control share partly the same cognitive processes. For example, downregulation of negative emotions requires inhibiting or limiting the expression of a prepotent appraisal of a situation in favor of selecting an alternative appraisal. Although inhibitory control seems to be a particularly relevant process in emotion regulation (ER), previous studies reported inconsistent findings on their relationship, likely because of the application of single task measures in relatively small samples. Therefore, this study implemented a battery of six commonly used inhibitory control tasks in a large sample of young healthy adults (N = 190) and investigated whether inhibitory control is associated with the downregulation of negative emotion. ER was measured via self-reported reappraisal and suppression use and via a laboratory ER task where participants had to distance themselves from emotions in response to negative and neutral pictures. The ER task was accompanied by concurrent physiological measurements of corrugator electromyography (EMG), skin conductance response (SCR), and heart period (HP). Frequentist and Bayesian analyses indicated that inhibitory control was neither associated with self-reported reappraisal and suppression use, nor with successful downregulation of negative emotion via distancing. Compared with HP and SCR, corrugator EMG was the only peripheral physiological measure that was indicative of regulatory success. The findings question the view that inhibitory control represents an underlying process in emotion regulation via distancing, at least at the behavioral level. Further studies should investigate the generalizability of these findings to other ER strategies, tactics, paradigms, and participant groups. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The long and the short of it: 5-HTTLPR and moral judgement.

Differences in moral sentiments are widespread. Increasingly, their biological correlates are investigated to elucidate potential sources of divergent moral attitudes and choices. Serotonin is one such potential modulator. We investigated the effects of a functional serotonergic polymorphism, 5-HTTLPR, which was previously linked to moral choices albeit with inconsistent findings. N = 157 healthy young adults completed a set of congruent and incongruent moral dilemmas. In addition to the traditional moral response score, this set allows by using a process dissociation (PD) approach an estimation a deontological and a utilitarian parameter. While there was no main effect of 5-HTTLPR on any of the three moral judgement parameters, there was an interaction effect between 5-HTTLPR and endocrine status on PD parameters, which was mainly due to the deontological but not the utilitarian parameter. In men and free cycling women, LL homozygotes showed reduced deontological tendencies compared to S allele carriers. Contrariwise, in women using oral contraceptives, LL homozygotes had increased deontology parameter scores. Furthermore, LL genotypes in general reported less difficulty in making harmful choices, which were in addition associated with less negative emotions. The findings suggest that 5-HTTLPR might be involved in modulating cognitive and emotional processes contributing to moral decisions.

Need for Cognition is associated with a preference for higher task load in effort discounting.

When individuals set goals, they consider the subjective value (SV) of the anticipated reward and the required effort, a trade-off that is of great interest to psychological research. One approach to quantify the SVs of levels of difficulty of a cognitive task is the Cognitive Effort Discounting Paradigm by Westbrook and colleagues (2013). However, it fails to acknowledge the highly individual nature of effort, as it assumes a unidirectional, inverse relationship between task load and SVs. Therefore, it cannot map differences in effort perception that arise from traits like Need for Cognition, since individuals who enjoy effortful cognitive activities likely do not prefer the easiest level. We replicated the analysis of Westbrook and colleagues with an adapted version, the Cognitive and Affective Discounting (CAD) Paradigm. It quantifies SVs without assuming that the easiest level is preferred, thereby enabling the assessment of SVs for tasks without objective order of task load. Results show that many of the 116 participants preferred a more or the most difficult level. Variance in SVs was best explained by a declining logistic contrast of the [Formula: see text]-back levels and by the accuracy of responses, while reaction time as a predictor was highly volatile depending on the preprocessing pipeline. Participants with higher Need for Cognition scores perceived higher [Formula: see text]-back levels as less effortful and found them less aversive. Effects of Need for Cognition on SVs in lower levels did not reach significance, as group differences only emerged in higher levels. The CAD Paradigm appears to be well suited for assessing and analysing task preferences independent of the supposed objective task difficulty.Protocol registrationThe stage 1 protocol for this Registered Report was accepted in principle on August 19, 2022. The protocol, as accepted by the journal, can be found at: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/CPXTH .

Cognitive effort investment: Does disposition become action?

Contrary to the law of less work, individuals with high levels of need for cognition and self-control tend to choose harder tasks more often. While both traits can be integrated into a core construct of dispositional cognitive effort investment, its relation to actual cognitive effort investment remains unclear. As individuals with high levels of cognitive effort investment are characterized by a high intrinsic motivation towards effortful cognition, they would be less likely to increase their effort based on expected payoff, but rather based on increasing demand. In the present study, we measured actual effort investment on multiple dimensions, i.e., subjective load, reaction time, accuracy, early and late frontal midline theta power, N2 and P3 amplitude, and pupil dilation. In a sample of N = 148 participants, we examined the relationship of dispositional cognitive effort investment and effort indices during a flanker and an n-back task with varying demand and payoff. Exploratorily, we examined this relationship for the two subdimensions cognitive motivation and effortful-self-control as well. In both tasks, effort indices were sensitive to demand and partly to payoff. The analyses revealed a main effect of cognitive effort investment for accuracy (n-back task), interaction effects with payoff for reaction time (n-back and flanker task) and P3 amplitude (n-back task) and demand for early frontal midline theta power (flanker task). Taken together, our results partly support the notion that individuals with high levels of cognitive effort investment exert effort more efficiently. Moreover, the notion that these individuals exert effort regardless of payoff is partly supported, too. This may further our understanding of the conditions under which person-situation interactions occur, i.e. the conditions under which situations determine effort investment in goal-directed behavior more than personality, and vice versa.

Estimating individual subjective values of emotion regulation strategies.

Individuals have a repertoire of emotion regulation (ER) strategies at their disposal, which they can use more or less flexibly. In ER flexibility research, strategies that facilitate goal achievement are considered adaptive and therefore are subjectively valuable. Individuals are motivated to reduce their emotional arousal effectively and to avoid cognitive effort. Perceived costs of ER strategies in the form of effort, however, are highly subjective. Subjective values (SVs) should therefore represent a trade-off between effectiveness and subjectively required cognitive effort. However, SVs of ER strategies have not been determined so far. We present a new paradigm for quantifying individual SVs of ER strategies by offering monetary values for ER strategies in an iterative process. N = 120 participants first conducted an ER paradigm with the strategies distraction, distancing, and suppression. Afterwards, individual SVs were determined using the new CAD paradigm. SVs significantly predicted later choice for an ER strategy (χ2 (4, n = 119) = 115.40, p < 0.001, BF10 = 1.62 × 1021). Further, SVs were associated with Corrugator activity (t (5, 618.96) = 2.09, p = 0.037, f2 = 0.001), subjective effort (t (5, 618.96) = - 13.98, p < 0.001, f2 = 0.035), and self-reported utility (t (5, 618.96) = 29.49, p < 0.001, f2 = 0.155). SVs were further associated with self-control (t (97.97) = 2.04, p = 0.044, f2 = 0.002), but not with flexible ER. With our paradigm, we were able to determine subjective values. The trait character of the values will be discussed. PROTOCOL REGISTRATION: The stage 1 protocol for this Registered Report was accepted in principle on July 19, 2022. The protocol, as accepted by the journal, can be found at: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/FN9BT .

Stretch Evolution of Electronic Coupling of the Thiophenyl Anchoring Group with Gold in Mechanically Controllable Break Junctions.

The current-voltage characteristics of a single-molecule junction are determined by the electronic coupling Γ between the electronic states of the electrodes and the dominant transport channel(s) of the molecule. Γ is profoundly affected by the choice of the anchoring groups and their binding positions on the tip facets and the tip-tip separation. In this work, mechanically controllable break junction experiments on the N,N'-bis(5-ethynylbenzenethiol-salicylidene)ethylenediamine are presented, in particular, the stretch evolution of Γ with increasing tip-tip separation. The stretch evolution of Γ is characterized by recurring local maxima and can be related to the deformation of the molecule and sliding of the anchoring groups above the tip facets and along the tip edges. A dynamic simulation approach is implemented to model the stretch evolution of Γ, which captures the experimentally observed features remarkably well and establishes a link to the microscopic structure of the single-molecule junction.

Children under stress - COMT genotype and stressful life events predict cortisol increase in an acute social stress paradigm.

Dopamine and norepinephrine are key regulators of cognitive and affective processes. The enzyme catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) catabolizes catecholamines and the COMT Val158Met polymorphism has been linked to several neuropsychiatric variables. Additionally, stressful life events (SLEs) contribute substantially to affective processes. We used the stress-induced activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis to investigate the effects of COMT and SLEs on the cortisol response in 119 healthy children (8-12 yr). Saliva cortisol was measured during and after the Trier Social Stress Test for Children. SLEs were assessed with a standardized interview with one of the children's parents. Linear regression analysis revealed a significant effect for COMT, with Met allele carriers showing a higher cortisol response (ß=0.300, p=0.001). In turn, more SLEs lead to a less pronounced cortisol increase (ß=-0.192, p=0.029) probably indicating increased resilience. Our results further underscore the essential and differential role of genetic variation and environmental factors on stress responsivity.

The heart as judge: Association of heart rate variability with moral judgement-A replication study.

There is growing research into contributing processes and biological correlates of moral inclinations. Recently, a negative association between utilitarianism and resting heart rate variability (HRV) as an indicator of cardiac vagal tone/parasympathetic activity was reported. We aimed to replicate and extend these findings by additionally investigating the sympathetic parameter electro-dermal activity (EDA), but found no associations in the total sample (N = 157). However, when taking sex and the use of combined oral contraceptives (COC) into account, we found a positive association between HRV and estimated deontology in women using COC and men, while in free cycling women there was a negative association. While no direct replication, our results also point to associations between higher HRV and decreased endorsement of harmful actions that serve a greater good. Unlike HRV, EDA showed no associations with moral judgements. In addition, there were correlations between personality traits and moral judgement.

Need for cognition and burnout in teachers - A replication and extension study.

Burnout has become more prevalent, mainly in social jobs, and there is evidence that certain personality traits protect against burnout. Only recently, studies have focused on investment traits like Need for Cognition (NFC), the stable intrinsic motivation to seek out and enjoy effortful cognitive activities. This study had three aims: First, the replication of findings by Grass et al. (2018), who investigated NFC and the burnout subscale reduced personal efficacy in student teachers, in a sample of 180 teachers. Second, investigating the role of perceived demands and resources in the context of NFC and burnout. And finally, creating an exploratory model for further research. The results indicated that unlike the student sample, the teachers' association of NFC and reduced personal efficacy was mediated by self-control but not reappraisal. Teachers with higher NFC and self-control also had lower burnout because they experienced their resources as fitting to the demands.

Need for cognition does not account for individual differences in metacontrol of decision making.

Humans show metacontrol of decision making, that is they adapt their reliance on decision-making strategies toward situational differences such as differences in reward magnitude. Specifically, when higher rewards are at stake, individuals increase reliance on a more accurate but cognitively effortful strategy. We investigated whether the personality trait Need for Cognition (NFC) explains individual differences in metacontrol. Based on findings of cognitive effort expenditure in executive functions, we expected more metacontrol in individuals low in NFC. In two independent studies, metacontrol was assessed by means of a decision-making task that dissociates different reinforcement-learning strategies and in which reward magnitude was manipulated across trials. In contrast to our expectations, NFC did not account for individual differences in metacontrol of decision making. In fact, a Bayesian analysis provided moderate to strong evidence against a relationship between NFC and metacontrol. Beyond this, there was no consistent evidence for relationship between NFC and overall model-based decision making. These findings show that the effect of rewards on the engagement of effortful decision-making strategies is largely independent of the intrinsic motivation for engaging in cognitively effortful tasks and suggest a differential role of NFC for the regulation of cognitive effort in decision making and executive functions.

Beyond revenge: neural and genetic bases of altruistic punishment.

It is still debated how altruistic punishment as one form of strong reciprocity has established during evolution and which motives may underlie such behavior. Recent neuroscientific evidence on the activation of brain reward regions during altruistic punishment in two-person one-shot exchange games suggests satisfaction through the punishment of norm violations as one underlying motive. In order to address this issue in more detail, we used fMRI during a one-shot economic exchange game that warrants strong reciprocity by introducing a third party punishment condition wherein revenge is unlikely to play a role. We report here that indeed, reward regions such as the nucleus accumbens showed punishment-related activation. Moreover, we provide preliminary evidence that genetic variation of dopamine turnover impacts similarly on punishment-related nucleus accumbens activation during both first person and third party punishment. The overall pattern of results suggests a common cognitive-affective-motivational network as the driving force for altruistic punishment, with only quantitative differences between first person and third party perspectives.

Predicting cortisol stress responses in older individuals: influence of serotonin receptor 1A gene (HTR1A) and stressful life events.

Considerable variability in the activity of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in response to stress has been found in quantitative genetic studies investigating healthy individuals suggesting that at least part of this variance is due to genetic factors. Since the HPA axis is regulated by a neuronal network including amygdala, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex as well as brainstem circuits, the investigation of candidate genes that impact neurotransmitter systems related to these brain regions might further elucidate the genetic underpinnings of the stress response. However, aside from genetic risk factors, past stressful life events might also result in long-term adjustments of HPA axis reactivity. Here, we investigated the effects of the -1019 G/C polymorphism in the HTR1A gene encoding the serotonin (5-HT) receptor 1A (5-HT(1A)) and stressful life events experienced during childhood and adolescence on changes in cortisol levels in response to the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) in a sample of healthy older adults (N=97). Regression analyses revealed a significant effect of HTR1A genotype with the G allele being associated with a less pronounced stress response. In addition, an inverse relationship between past stressful life events and cortisol release but no gene × environment interaction was detected. The results further underscore the crucial role of functional serotonergic genetic variation as well as stressful events during critical stages of development on the acute stress response later in life.