Individual metabolism and behaviour as complementary endpoints to better understand mangrove crab community variations linked to wastewater inputs.

Mangrove forests are impacted by a large range of anthropogenic activities that challenge their functioning. For example, domestic wastewater (WW) discharges are known to increase vegetation growth but recent studies indicate that they have negative effects on benthic macrofauna, especially on mangrove crabs, these ecosystem engineers playing a key role on the functioning of the mangrove. In experimental areas regularly receiving WW at low tide (Mayotte Island, Indian Ocean), a drastic decrease in burrowing crab density has been reported. In this context, the individual behavioural and physiological responses of the fiddler crab Paraleptuca chlorophthalmus exposed to short-term (6 h) pulse of WW and ammonia-N (as a potential proxy of WW) were investigated. This species is one of the most sensitive to WW within the mangrove crab community. For the behavioural experiment, crabs could choose between the aquatic and aerial environment. Individual metabolic rate (O2 consumption) was monitored after 6 h of exposure in WW or ammonia-N. Aerobic and anaerobic metabolic markers (citrate synthase and lactate dehydrogenase activities, respectively) were also evaluated. Results indicate that crabs exposed to WW are more active and mobile than controls after 3 h. Crabs actively emersed from WW and reduced their activity and mobility after 6 h. A higher metabolic rate in WW occurred immediately (t = 0 h), 3 and 6 h after WW exposure, with also, a burst in aerobic bacterial consumption in WW, but no effect of ammonia-N. No effect of WW or ammonia-N was observed on enzymatic aerobic and anaerobic metabolic markers. Therefore, short-term pulses with domestic polluted wastewater trigger quick behavioural and metabolic responses that could be deleterious if prolonged. These results could contribute to the understanding of the community-scale changes observed in benthic macrofauna after several years of regular domestic pollution pulses.

Exceptional but vulnerable microbial diversity in coral reef animal surface microbiomes.

Coral reefs host hundreds of thousands of animal species that are increasingly threatened by anthropogenic disturbances. These animals host microbial communities at their surface, playing crucial roles for their fitness. However, the diversity of such microbiomes is mostly described in a few coral species and still poorly defined in other invertebrates and vertebrates. Given the diversity of animal microbiomes, and the diversity of host species inhabiting coral reefs, the contribution of such microbiomes to the total microbial diversity of coral reefs could be important, yet potentially vulnerable to the loss of animal species. Analysis of the surface microbiome from 74 taxa, including teleost fishes, hard and soft corals, crustaceans, echinoderms, bivalves and sponges, revealed that more than 90% of their prokaryotic phylogenetic richness was specific and not recovered in surrounding plankton. Estimate of the total richness associated with coral reef animal surface microbiomes reached up to 2.5% of current estimates of Earth prokaryotic diversity. Therefore, coral reef animal surfaces should be recognized as a hotspot of marine microbial diversity. Loss of the most vulnerable reef animals expected under present-day scenarios of reef degradation would induce an erosion of 28% of the prokaryotic richness, with unknown consequences on coral reef ecosystem functioning.

Neglected impacts of plant protection products on invertebrate aquatic biodiversity: a focus on eco-evolutionary processes.

The application of plant protection products (PPPs) may have delayed and long-term non-intentional impacts on aquatic invertebrates inhabiting agricultural landscapes. Such effects may induce population responses based on developmental and transgenerational plasticity, selection of genetic resistance, as well as increased extirpation risks associated with random genetic drift. While the current knowledge on such effects of PPPs is still scarce in non-target aquatic invertebrate species, evidences are accumulating that support the need for consideration of evolutionary components of the population response to PPPs in standard procedures of risk assessment. This mini-review, as part of a contribution to the collective scientific assessment on PPP impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services performed in the period 2020-2022, presents a brief survey of the current results published on the subject, mainly in freshwater crustaceans, and proposes some research avenues and strategies that we feel relevant to fill this gap.

Role of trophic interactions in transfer and cascading impacts of plant protection products on biodiversity: a literature review.

Plant protection products (PPPs) have historically been one of the classes of chemical compounds at the frontline of raising scientific and public awareness of the global nature of environmental pollution and the role of trophic interactions in shaping the impacts of chemicals on ecosystems. Despite increasingly strong regulatory measures since the 1970s designed to avoid unintentional effects of PPPs, their use is now recognised as a driver of biodiversity erosion. The French Ministries for the Environment, Agriculture and Research commissioned a collective scientific assessment to synthesise the current science and knowledge on the impacts of PPPs on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Here we report a literature review of the state of knowledge on the propagation of PPP residues and the effects of PPPs in food webs, including biopesticides, with a focus on current-use PPPs. Currently used PPPs may be stronger drivers of the current biodiversity loss than the banned compounds no longer in use, and there have been far fewer reviews on current-use PPPs than legacy PPPs. We first provide a detailed overview of the transfer and propagation of effects of PPPs through trophic interactions in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. We then review cross-ecosystem trophic paths of PPP propagation, and provide insight on the role of trophic interactions in the impacts of PPPs on ecological functions. We conclude with a summary of the available knowledge and the perspectives for tackling the main gaps, and address areas that warrant further research and pathways to advancing environmental risk assessment.

Impacts of neonicotinoids on biodiversity: a critical review.

Neonicotinoids are the most widely used class of insecticides in the world, but they have raised numerous concerns regarding their effects on biodiversity. Thus, the objective of this work was to do a critical review of the contamination of the environment (soil, water, air, biota) by neonicotinoids (acetamiprid, clothianidin, imidacloprid, thiacloprid, thiamethoxam) and of their impacts on terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity. Neonicotinoids are very frequently detected in soils and in freshwater, and they are also found in the air. They have only been recently monitored in coastal and marine environments, but some studies already reported the presence of imidacloprid and thiamethoxam in transitional or semi-enclosed ecosystems (lagoons, bays, and estuaries). The contamination of the environment leads to the exposure and to the contamination of non-target organisms and to negative effects on biodiversity. Direct impacts of neonicotinoids are mainly reported on terrestrial invertebrates (e.g., pollinators, natural enemies, earthworms) and vertebrates (e.g., birds) and on aquatic invertebrates (e.g., arthropods). Impacts on aquatic vertebrate populations and communities, as well as on microorganisms, are less documented. In addition to their toxicity to directly exposed organisms, neonicotinoid induce indirect effects via trophic cascades as demonstrated in several species (terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates). However, more data are needed to reach firmer conclusions and to get a clearer picture of such indirect effects. Finally, we identified specific knowledge gaps that need to be filled to better understand the effects of neonicotinoids on terrestrial, freshwater, and marine organisms, as well as on ecosystem services associated with these biotas.

Main conclusions and perspectives from the collective scientific assessment of the effects of plant protection products on biodiversity and ecosystem services along the land-sea continuum in France and French overseas territories.

Preservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services is critical for sustainable development and human well-being. However, an unprecedented erosion of biodiversity is observed and the use of plant protection products (PPP) has been identified as one of its main causes. In this context, at the request of the French Ministries responsible for the Environment, for Agriculture and for Research, a panel of 46 scientific experts ran a nearly 2-year-long (2020-2022) collective scientific assessment (CSA) of international scientific knowledge relating to the impacts of PPP on biodiversity and ecosystem services. The scope of this CSA covered the terrestrial, atmospheric, freshwater, and marine environments (with the exception of groundwater) in their continuity from the site of PPP application to the ocean, in France and French overseas territories, based on international knowledge produced on or transposable to this type of context (climate, PPP used, biodiversity present, etc.). Here, we provide a brief summary of the CSA's main conclusions, which were drawn from about 4500 international publications. Our analysis finds that PPP contaminate all environmental matrices, including biota, and cause direct and indirect ecotoxicological effects that unequivocally contribute to the decline of certain biological groups and alter certain ecosystem functions and services. Levers for action to limit PPP-driven pollution and effects on environmental compartments include local measures from plot to landscape scales and regulatory improvements. However, there are still significant gaps in knowledge regarding environmental contamination by PPPs and its effect on biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services. Perspectives and research needs are proposed to address these gaps.

Embryonic ionocytes in the European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax): Structure and functionality.

Early ionocytes have been studied in the European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) embryos. Structural and functional aspects were analyzed and compared with those observed in the same conditions (38 ppt) in post hatching stages. Immunolocalization of Na(+) /K(+) -ATPase (NKA) in embryos revealed the presence of ionocytes on the yolk sac membrane from a stage 12 pair of somites (S), and an original cluster around the first gill slits from stage 14S. Histological investigations suggested that from these cells, close to the future gill chambers, originate the ionocytes observed on gill arches and gill filaments after hatching. Triple immunocytochemical staining, including NKA, various Na(+) /K(+) /2Cl⁻ cotransporters (NKCCs) and the chloride channel "cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator" (CFTR), point to the occurrence of immature and mature ionocytes in early and late embryonic stages at different sites. These observations were completed with transmission electronic microscopy. The degree of functionality of ionocytes is discussed according to these results. Yolk sac membrane ionocytes and enteric ionocytes seem to have an early role in embryonic osmoregulation, whereas gill slits tegumentary ionocytes are presumed to be fully efficient after hatching.

The hepatopancreas of the mangrove crab Neosarmatium africanum: a possible key to understanding the effects of wastewater exposure (Mayotte Island, Indian Ocean).

Mangrove crabs are ecosystem engineers through their bioturbation activity. On Mayotte Island, the abundance of Neosarmatium africanum decreased in wastewater-impacted areas. Previous analyses showed that global crab metabolism is impacted by wastewater, with a burst in O2 consumption that may be caused by osmo-respiratory trade-offs since gill functioning was impacted. As the hepatopancreas is a key metabolic organ, the purpose of this study was to investigate the physiological effects of wastewater and ammonia-N 5-h exposure on crabs to better understand the potential trade-offs underlying the global metabolic state. Catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione S-transferase, total digestive protease, and serine protease (trypsin and chymotrypsin) activities were assessed. Histological analyses were performed to determine structural modifications. No effect of short-term wastewater and ammonia-N exposure was found in antioxidant defenses or digestive enzyme activity. However, histological changes of B-cells indicate an increase in intracellular digestive activity through higher vacuolization processes and tubule dilation in wastewater-exposed crabs.

Embryonic occurrence of ionocytes in the sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax.

Because of the permeability of the chorion, sea bass embryos are exposed to seawater before hatching and hence require precocious osmoregulatory processes. Several studies of other species have demonstrated the existence of ion-transporting cells located on the yolk sac membrane of embryos. In these cells, called ionocytes, ion movements are controlled by a pool of transmembrane proteins. Among them, the Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase, an abundant driving enzyme, has been used to reveal the presence or absence of ionocytes. We have immunostained the Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase in sea-bass embryos and shown the presence of the first ionocytes on the yolk sac membrane at stage 12 somites and the occurrence of ionocytes at other sites before hatching. Ionocytes located on the first gill slits have been identified at stage 14 somites. Primitive enteric ionocytes have also been detected at stage 14 somites in the mid and posterior gut. The presence of these cells might be related to the early opening of the gut to perivitelline fluids, both anteriorly by the gill slits and posteriorly by the anus. The role of embryonic ionocytes in osmoregulation before hatching is discussed.

Localization of ion-regulatory epithelia in embryos and hatchlings of two cephalopods.

The tissue distribution and ontogeny of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase has been examined as an indicator for ion-regulatory epithelia in whole animal sections of embryos and hatchlings of two cephalopod species: the squid Loligo vulgaris and the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis. This is the first report of the immunohistochemical localization of cephalopod Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase with the polyclonal antibody alpha (H-300) raised against the human alpha1-subunit of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase. Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase immunoreactivity was observed in several tissues (gills, pancreatic appendages, nerves), exclusively located in baso-lateral membranes lining blood sinuses. Furthermore, large single cells in the gill of adult L. vulgaris specimens closely resembled Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase-rich cells described in fish. Immunohistochemical observations indicated that the amount and distribution of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase in late cuttlefish embryos was similar to that found in juvenile and adult stages. The ion-regulatory epithelia (e.g., gills, excretory organs) of the squid embryos and paralarvae exhibited less differentiation than adults. Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase activities for whole animals were higher in hatchlings of S. officinalis (157.0 +/- 32.4 micromol g (FM) (-1) h(-1)) than in those of L. vulgaris (31.8 +/- 3.3 micromol g (FM) (-1) h(-1)). S. officinalis gills and pancreatic appendages achieved activities of 94.8 +/- 18.5 and 421.8 +/- 102.3 micromol(ATP) g (FM) (-1) h(-1), respectively. High concentrations of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase in late cephalopod embryos might be important in coping with the challenging abiotic conditions (low pH, high pCO(2)) that these organisms encounter inside their eggs. Our results also suggest a higher sensitivity of squid vs. cuttlefish embryos to environmental acid-base disturbances.

Ontogeny of osmoregulation and salinity tolerance in the gilthead sea bream Sparus aurata.

The gilthead sea bream, Sparus aurata, is a euryhaline teleost that hatches in the open sea. The larvae drift to the coast and juveniles migrate into estuaries and lagoons where the salinity of the water may vary from brackish to hyper-saline. The ontogeny of osmoregulation in Sparus aurata was studied at successive stages, from day 1 (D1) post-hatch to the late juvenile stage (D300) after exposure to different salinities ranging from fresh water to 45.1 per thousand, at 18 degrees C. Survival ranged from between 5.1 and 39.1 per thousand at D3, and from 1.0 to 45.1 per thousand from D75. The fish were hyper-hypo-osmotic regulators at all studied stages. The acquisition of the full ability to hypo- and hyper-regulate occurred in four steps. The osmoregulatory capacity appeared age-dependent and reached its maximum level after D96, and the localization of ionocytes in the integument and gills occurred concurrently during development of the sea bream. However, the main site of osmoregulation shifted from the integument to the gills from D30 to D70, with a corresponding sharp increase in the osmoregulatory ability. Our results suggest that the early development of osmoregulatory ability, and thus of salinity tolerance in the sea bream may provide an advantageous flexibility for the timing of the migration between sea and estuaries and lagoons.

Wastewater bioremediation by mangrove ecosystems impacts crab ecophysiology: In-situ caging experiment.

Mangroves are tidal wetlands that are often under strong anthropogenic pressures, despite the numerous ecosystem services they provide. Pollution from urban runoffs is one such threats, yet some mangroves are used as a bioremediation tool for wastewater (WW) treatment. This practice can impact mangrove crabs, which are key engineer species of the ecosystem. Using an experimental area with controlled WW releases, this study aimed to determine from an ecological and ecotoxicological perspective, the effects of WW on the red mangrove crab Neosarmatium africanum. Burrow density and salinity levels (used as a proxy of WW dispersion) were recorded, and a 3-week caging experiment was performed. Hemolymph osmolality, gill Na+/K+-ATPase (NKA) activity and gill redox balance were assessed in anterior and posterior gills of N. africanum. Burrow density decreased according to salinity decreases around the discharged area. Crabs from the impacted area had a lower osmoregulatory capacity despite gill NKA activity remaining undisturbed. The decrease of the superoxide dismutase activity indicates changes in redox metabolism. However, both catalase activity and oxidative damage remained unchanged in both areas but were higher in posterior gills. These results indicate that WW release may induce osmoregulatory and redox imbalances, potentially explaining the decrease in crab density. Based on these results we conclude that WW release should be carefully monitored as crabs are key players involved in the bioremediation process.

Effects of domestic effluent discharges on mangrove crab physiology: Integrated energetic, osmoregulatory and redox balances of a key engineer species.

Mangroves are increasingly used as biofiltering systems of (pre-treated) domestic effluents. However, these wastewater discharges may affect local macrofauna. This laboratory study investigates the effects of wastewater exposure on the mangrove spider crab Neosarmatium meinerti, a key engineering species which is known to be affected by waste waters in effluent-impacted areas. These effects were quantified by monitoring biological markers of physiological state, namely oxygen consumption, the branchial cavity ventilation rate, gill physiology and morphology, and osmoregulatory and redox balance. Adults acclimated to clean seawater (SW, 32 ppt) and freshwater (FW, ∼0 ppt) were compared to crabs exposed to wastewater for 5 h (WW, ∼0 ppt). Spider crabs exposed to WW increased their ventilation and whole-animal respiration rates by 2- and 3-fold respectively, while isolated gill respiration increased in the animals exposed to FW (from 0.5 to 2.3 and 1.1 nmol O2 min-1 mg DW-1 for anterior and posterior gills, respectively) but was not modified in WW-exposed individuals. WW exposure also impaired crab osmoregulatory capacity; an 80 mOsm kg-1 decrease was observed compared to FW, likely due to decreased branchial NKA activity. ROS production (DCF fluorescence in hemolymph), antioxidant defenses (superoxide dismutase and catalase activities) and oxidative damage (malondialdehyde concentration) responses varied according to animal gender. Overall, this study demonstrates that specific physiological parameters must be considered when focusing on crabs with bimodal breathing capacities. We conclude that spider crabs exposed to WW face osmoregulatory imbalances due to functional and morphological gill remodeling, which must rapidly exhaust energy reserves. These physiological disruptions could explain the ecological changes observed in the field.

Salinity Variation in a Mangrove Ecosystem: A Physiological Investigation to Assess Potential Consequences of Salinity Disturbances on Mangrove Crabs.

Dimitri Theuerkauff, Georgina A. Rivera-Ingraham, Jonathan A.C. Roques, Laurence Azzopardi, Marine Bertini, Mathilde Lejeune, Emilie Farcy, Jehan-Hervé Lignot, and Elliott Sucré (2018) Salinity is one of the main environmental factors determining coastal species distribution. However, in the specific case of mangrove crabs, salinity selection cannot be understood through ecological approaches alone. Yet understanding this issue is crucial in the context of mangrove conservation, since this ecosystem is often used as biofilter of (low- salinity) wastewater. Crabs are keystone species in this mangrove ecosystem and are differentially affected by salinity. We hypothesize that crab salinity selection may be partly explained by specific salinity-induced physiological constraints associated with osmoregulation, energy and redox homeostasis. To test this, the response to salinity variation was analysed in two landward mangrove crabs: the fiddler crab Tubuca urvillei, which inhabits low-salinity areas of the mangrove, and the red mangrove crab Neosarmatium meinerti, which lives in areas with higher salinity. Results confirm that both species are strong hypo-/hyper-osmoregulators that deal easily with large salinity variations. Such shifts in salinity do not induce changes in energy expenditure (measured as oxygen consumption) or in the production of reactive oxygen species. However, T. urvillei is physiologically suited to habitats with brackish water, since it presents i) high hemolymph osmolalities over a wider range of salinities and lower osmoregulatory capacity in seawater, ii) high Na+/K+-ATPase (NKA) activity in the posterior osmoregulatory gills and iii) a thicker osmoregulatory epithelium along the posterior gill lamellae. Therefore, while environmental salinity alone cannot directly explain fiddler and red mangrove crab distributions, our data suggest that salinity selection is indeed influenced by specific physiological adjustments.

Osmoregulatory response to low salinities in the European sea bass embryos: a multi-site approach.

Embryonic osmoregulation effected by embryonic ionocytes in the European sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax has been studied at several sites, including the yolk sac membrane, the first gill slits and the gut ionocytes. D. labrax embryos, spawned in seawater (SW) (39 ‰), were exposed to dilute seawater (DSW) (5 ‰) during 48 h, from stage 10 pairs of somites (10S) to hatching time (HT). Control embryos originating from the same spawn were maintained in SW. Both SW and DSW embryos were examined after 24- and 48-h exposure. Nanoosmometric measurements of the embryonic fluids osmolality suggest that late embryos are confronted with the variations in external salinity and that they were able to slightly regulate their osmolality. Immunolocalization of Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase, NKCC and CFTR has shown that DSW-exposed embryos can limit ion losses due to compensatory physiological mechanisms. CFTR and NKCC were not observed in DSW embryos in the yolk sac ionocytes and in the tegumentary ionocytes of the gill slits. The quantification of mRNA indicated that NKA, NKCC1 and CFTR transcript levels increased from stage 10S to stage HT. At stage HT, following 48 h of DSW- or SW-exposure, different responses were observed according to salinity. These results, when compared to those obtained in D. labrax juveniles and adults long-term exposed to fresh water (FW), show that in embryos the physiological response following a short-term DSW exposure is different. The mechanisms of hyper-osmoregulation observed in D. labrax embryos, although not fully efficient, allow their survival for several days in DSW.

Impact of ultraviolet-B radiation on planktonic fish larvae: alteration of the osmoregulatory function.

Coastal marine ecosystems are submitted to variations of several abiotic and biotic parameters, some of them related to global change. Among them the ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation (UVBR: 280-320 nm) may strongly impact planktonic fish larvae. The consequences of an increase of UVBR on the osmoregulatory function of Dicentrarchus labrax larvae have been investigated in this study. In young larvae of D. labrax, as in other teleosts, osmoregulation depends on tegumentary ion transporting cells, or ionocytes, mainly located on the skin of the trunk and of the yolk sac. As early D. labrax larvae passively drift in the top water column, ionocytes are exposed to solar radiation. The effect of UVBR on larval osmoregulation in seawater was evaluated through nanoosmometric measurements of the blood osmolality after exposure to different UV-B treatments. A loss of osmoregulatory capability occured in larvae after 2 days of low (50 µWcm(-2): 4 h L/20 h D) and medium (80 µWcm(-2): 4 h L/20 h D) UVBR exposure. Compared to control larvae kept in the darkness, a significant increase in blood osmolality, abnormal behavior and high mortalities were detected in larvae exposed to UVBR from 2 days on. At the cellular level, an important decrease in abundance of tegumentary ionocytes and mucous cells was observed after 2 days of exposure to UVBR. In the ionocytes, two major osmoeffectors were immunolocalized, the Na+/K(+)-ATPase and the Na+/K+/2Cl- cotransporter. Compared to controls, the fluorescent immunostaining was lower in UVBR-exposed larvae. We hypothesize that the impaired osmoregulation in UVBR-exposed larvae originates from the lower number of tegumentary ionocytes and mucous cells. This alteration of the osmoregulatory function could negatively impact the survival of young larvae at the surface water exposed to UVBR.