Functional regulation of the protein phosphatase PPM1M by phosphorylation at multiple sites with Ser/Thr-Pro motifs.

The imbalance in the phosphorylation and the dephosphorylation of proteins leads to various diseases. Therefore, in vivo, the functions of protein kinases and protein phosphatases are strictly regulated. Mg2+/Mn2+-dependent protein phosphatase PPM1M has been implicated in immunity and cancer; however, the regulation mechanism remains unknown. In this study, we show that PPM1M is regulated in different ways by multiple phosphorylation. PPM1M has four Ser/Thr-Pro motifs (Ser27, Ser43, Ser60, and Thr254) that are recognized by proline-directed kinases, and Ser60 was found to be phosphorylated by cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5) in the cell. The phospho-mimetic mutation of Ser27 and Ser43 in the N-terminal domain suppresses the nuclear localization of PPM1M and promotes its accumulation in the cytoplasm. The phospho-mimetic mutation of Ser60 decreases PPM1M activity; conversely, the phospho-mimetic mutation of Thr254 increases PPM1M activity. These results suggest that the subcellular localization and phosphatase activity of PPM1M are regulated by protein kinases, including CDK5, via phosphorylation at multiple sites. Thus, PPM1M is differentially regulated by proline-directed kinases, including CDK5.

Subcellular distribution of bone morphogenetic protein 2-inducible kinase (BMP2K): Regulation by liquid-liquid phase separation and nucleocytoplasmic shuttling.

Bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2)-inducible kinase (BMP2K) is induced by the cytokine BMP2, which is also implicated in the production of bone differentiation. In addition to regulating bone differentiation, BMP2K is implicated in a variety of cancers. Therefore, understanding the variables that determine where in the cell this kinase functions may help in understanding malignancies linked to BMP2K. However, the mechanisms regulating the subcellular localization of BMP2K are mainly unknown. By liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS), BMP2K forms droplets in the cytoplasm, but how the droplets are regulated remains unclear. The reason why BMP2K localizes to the cytoplasm irrespective of having a nuclear localization signal (NLS) is also unknown. Here we show the element that controls BMP2K's LLPS and cytoplasmic localization. A glutamine-rich area is necessary for BMP2K phase separation, and droplet formation is controlled by hyperosmolarity. Cytoplasmic localization of BMP2K is managed by inhibition of NLS function through phosphorylation of Ser-1010 and by a newly found cytoplasmic localization region that antagonizes the NLS. These results will provide an important biochemical foundation for the advancement of BMP2K-related cell biology, structural biology, and pathophysiology.

CaMK phosphatase (CaMKP/POPX2/PPM1F) inhibitors suppress the migration of human breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells with loss of polarized morphology.

CaMK phosphatase (CaMKP/POPX2/PPM1F) is a Ser/Thr protein phosphatase that belongs to the PPM family. Accumulating evidence suggests that CaMKP is involved in the pathogenesis of various diseases, including cancer. To clarify the relationship between CaMKP activity and human breast cancer cell motility, we examined the phosphatase activity of CaMKP in cell extracts. CaMKP activity assays of the immunoprecipitates prepared from the cell extract revealed that cells exhibiting higher motility had higher CaMKP activity, with no significant differences in the specific activity being observed. Two CaMKP-specific inhibitors, 1-amino-8-naphthol-4-sulfonic acid (ANS) and 1-amino-8-naphthol-2,4-disulfonic acid (ANDS), inhibited the migration of highly invasive MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells without significant cytotoxicity, while an inactive analog, naphthionic acid, did not. Furthermore, the cells lost their elongated morphology and assumed a rounded shape following treatment with ANS, whereas they retained their elongated morphology following treatment with naphthionic acid. Consistent with these findings, ANS and ANDS significantly enhanced the phosphorylation level of CaMKI, a cellular substrate of CaMKP, while naphthionic acid did not. The present data suggest that CaMKP could be a novel therapeutic target for cancer metastasis.

CaM kinase phosphatase (CaMKP/PPM1F/POPX2) is specifically inactivated through gallate-mediated protein carbonylation.

CaMK phosphatase (CaMKP/PPM1F/POPX2) is a Mn2+-dependent, calyculin A/okadaic acid-insensitive Ser/Thr protein phosphatase that belongs to the PPM family. CaMKP is thought to be involved in regulation of not only various protein kinases, such as CaM kinases and p21-activated protein kinase, but also of cellular proteins regulated by phosphorylation. A large-scale screening of a chemical library identified gallic acid and some of its alkyl esters as novel CaMKP inhibitors highly specific to CaMKP. Surprisingly, they caused specific carbonylation of CaMKP, leading to its inactivation. Under the same conditions, no carbonylation nor inactivation was observed when PPM1A, which is affiliated with the same family as CaMKP, and λ-phosphatase were used. The carbonylation reaction was inhibited by SH compounds such as cysteamine in a dose-dependent manner with a concomitant decrease in CaMKP inhibition by ethyl gallate. The pyrogallol structure of gallate was necessary for the gallate-mediated carbonylation of CaMKP. Point mutations of CaMKP leading to impairment of phosphatase activity did not significantly affect the gallate-mediated carbonylation. Ethyl gallate resulted in almost complete inhibition of CaMKP under the conditions where the carbonylation level was nearly identical to that of CaMKP carbonylation via metal-catalyzed oxidation with ascorbic acid/FeSO4, which resulted in only a partial inhibition of CaMKP. The gallate-mediated carbonylation of CaMKP absolutely required divalent cations such as Mn2+, Cu2+, Co2+ and Fe2+, and was markedly enhanced by a phosphopeptide substrate. When MDA-MB-231 cells transiently expressing CaM kinase I, a CaMKP substrate, were treated by ethyl gallate, significant enhancement of phosphorylation of CaM kinase I was observed, suggesting that ethyl gallate can penetrate into cells to inactivate cellular CaMKP. All the presented data strongly support the hypothesis that CaMKP undergoes carbonylation of its specific amino acid residues by incubation with alkyl gallates and the divalent metal cations, leading to inactivation specific to CaMKP.

Dual phosphorylation of protein phosphatase PPM1H promotes dephosphorylation of Smad1 in cellulo.

Protein phosphatase PPM1H is known to participate in various biological or pathophysiological mechanisms. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms of its regulation. In this study, we investigated the protein kinases that directly phosphorylate PPM1H, identifying them as cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) and Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase I (CaMKI). In vitro and in silico analyses showed that the phosphorylation sites of PPM1H by PKA and CaMKI were Ser-123 and Ser-210, respectively. The phosphorylation state of PPM1H in cells exhibited the kinase activator- and inhibitor-dependent changes. In mouse neuroblastoma Neuro2a cells, phosphorylation of Ser-210 was much higher in the phospho-mimetic mutant (S123D) than in the non-phosphorylatable mutant (S123A) when they were treated with ionomycin. This suggests that a hierarchical phosphorylation, with initial phosphorylation of Ser-123 promoting subsequent phosphorylation of Ser-210, occurs in these neuron-like cells. Moreover, in cell-based assay a PPM1H(S123A/S210A) double mutant barely dephosphorylated Smad1, a transcription factor known as an endogenous substrate of PPM1H. These results suggest that cAMP and Ca2+/calmodulin regulate dephosphorylation of Smad1 through the dual phosphorylation of PPM1H at Ser-123 and Ser-210.

Cyclin-Dependent Kinase-Like 5 (CDKL5): Possible Cellular Signalling Targets and Involvement in CDKL5 Deficiency Disorder.

Cyclin-dependent kinase-like 5 (CDKL5, also known as STK9) is a serine/threonine protein kinase originally identified in 1998 during a transcriptional mapping project of the human X chromosome. Thereafter, a mutation in CDKL5 was reported in individuals with the atypical Rett syndrome, a neurodevelopmental disorder, suggesting that CDKL5 plays an important regulatory role in neuronal function. The disease associated with CDKL5 mutation has recently been recognised as CDKL5 deficiency disorder (CDD) and has been distinguished from the Rett syndrome owing to its symptomatic manifestation. Because CDKL5 mutations identified in patients with CDD cause enzymatic loss of function, CDKL5 catalytic activity is likely strongly associated with the disease. Consequently, the exploration of CDKL5 substrate characteristics and regulatory mechanisms of its catalytic activity are important for identifying therapeutic target molecules and developing new treatment. In this review, we summarise recent findings on the phosphorylation of CDKL5 substrates and the mechanisms of CDKL5 phosphorylation and dephosphorylation. We also discuss the relationship between changes in the phosphorylation signalling pathways and the Cdkl5 knockout mouse phenotype and consider future prospects for the treatment of mental and neurological disease associated with CDKL5 mutations.

Autoactivation of C-terminally truncated Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMK) Iδ via CaMK kinase-independent autophosphorylation.

Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase I isoforms (CaMKIα, ß, γ, and δ) play important roles in Ca2+ signaling in eukaryotic cells by being activated by CaMK kinase (CaMKK) through phosphorylation at a Thr residue in the activation loop. However, we have recently found that, unlike rat CaMKIα (rCaMKIα), C-terminally truncated fragments of zebrafish and mouse CaMKIδ [zCaMKIδ(1-299) and mCaMKIδ(1-297)] produced by Escherichia coli exhibit almost full activity in the absence of CaMKK. To address the CaMKK-independent activation mechanism of CaMKIδ in E. coli cells, here we performed comparative analyses between recombinant zCaMKIδ(1-299) and rCaMKIα(1-294) in vitro. By using a kinase-dead mutant of zCaMKIδ(1-299) and λ phosphatase coexpression method, we elucidated that zCaMKIδ(1-299) was highly autophosphorylated and activated in E. coli during cell culture, but rCaMKIα(1-294) was not. The major autophosphorylation site leading to activation of the kinase was Ser296, determined using mass spectrometry analysis in conjunction with site-directed mutagenesis. Furthermore, mimicking phosphorylation at Ser296 in full-length zCaMKIδ resulted in additional activation of the kinase compared with CaMKI fully activated by CaMKK. Our results provide the first evidence that CaMKIδ is activated through CaMKK-independent phosphorylation at Ser296, which might be a clue to understand the physiological regulation of CaMKIδ isoform.

Functions and dysfunctions of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase phosphatase (CaMKP/PPM1F) and CaMKP-N/PPM1E.

Intracellular signal transduction is built on the basis of the subtle balance between phosphorylation and dephosphorylation. Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase phosphatase (CaMKP/PPM1F/POPX2) and CaMKP-N (PPM1E/POPX1) are Ser/Thr phosphatases that belong to the PPM (protein phosphatase, Mg2+/Mn2+-dependent) family. The former was discovered in rat brain as a novel protein phosphatase regulating Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases (CaMKs), whereas the latter was first identified in human cDNA databases using the rat CaMKP sequence. Subsequent studies have revealed that they are involved in various cellular functions through regulation of not only CaMKs but also other protein kinases such as AMP-activated protein kinase. Furthermore, accumulating evidence shows possible involvement of CaMKP and CaMKP-N in the pathogenesis of various diseases including cancer. Therefore, the biochemistry of CaMKP and CaMKP-N largely contributes to molecular medicine targeting these phosphatases. In this review, we summarized recent progress in the enzymology and biology of CaMKP and CaMKP-N. We also focused on etiology studies in which CaMKP and CaMKP-N are involved. Based on the emerging evidence, future perspectives of studies on these phosphatases and related issues to be elucidated are discussed.

Facile preparation of highly active casein kinase 1 using Escherichia coli constitutively expressing lambda phosphatase.

Casein kinase 1 (CK1) is a widely expressed Ser/Thr kinase in eukaryotic organisms that is involved in various cellular processes (e.g., circadian rhythm and apoptosis). Therefore, preparing highly active CK1 and investigating its properties in vitro have important implications for understanding the biological roles of the kinase. However, recombinant CK1 undergoes autoinactivation via autophosphorylation in Escherichia coli cells and thus is undesirably prepared as a phosphorylated and inactivated kinase. To circumvent this problem, we established a protein expression system using E. coli strain BL21(DE3)pλPP in which λ protein phosphatase (λPPase) is constitutively expressed. Using this system, recombinant CK1 isoforms (α, δ and ε) were readily prepared as unphosphorylated forms. Furthermore, we found that CK1s prepared using BL21(DE3)pλPP showed markedly higher activity than those prepared by the conventional BL21(DE3). Finally, we demonstrated that the kinase activity of CK1δ from BL21(DE3)pλPP was higher than that prepared by a conventional method consisting of troublesome steps such as in vitro λPPase treatment. Thus, this simple method using BL21(DE3)pλPP is valuable for preparing highly active CK1s. It may also be applicable to other kinases that are difficult to prepare because of phosphorylation in E. coli cells.

Characterization of CoPK02, a Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase in mushroom Coprinopsis cinerea.

We surveyed genome sequences from the basidiomycetous mushroom Coprinopsis cinerea and isolated a cDNA homologous to CMKA, a calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMK) in Aspergillus nidulans. We designated this sequence, encoding 580 amino acids with a molecular weight of 63,987, as CoPK02. CoPK02 possessed twelve subdomains specific to protein kinases and exhibited 43, 35, 40% identity with rat CaMKI, CaMKII, CaMKIV, respectively, and 40% identity with CoPK12, one of the CaMK orthologs in C. cinerea. CoPK02 showed significant autophosphorylation activity and phosphorylated exogenous proteins in the presence of Ca2+/CaM. By the CaM-overlay assay we confirmed that the C-terminal sequence (Trp346-Arg358) was the calmodulin-binding site, and that the binding of Ca2+/CaM to CoPK02 was reduced by the autophosphorylation of CoPK02. Since CoPK02 evolved in a different clade from CoPK12, and showed different gene expression compared to that of CoPK32, which is homologous to mitogen-activated protein kinase-activated protein kinase, CoPK02 and CoPK12 might cooperatively regulate Ca2+-signaling in C. cinerea.

Laboratory surveillance of antimicrobial resistance and multidrug resistance among Streptococcus pneumoniae isolated in the Kinki region of Japan, 2001-2015.

The 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) was introduced among children in Japan in 2010. There are no long-term multicenter surveillance studies of antimicrobial resistance in S. pneumoniae before and after the introduction of PCV7. Therefore, we examined chronological trends in antimicrobial resistance among 4534 strains of S. pneumoniae isolated from both children and adults in the Kinki region of Japan during 2001-2015. High-level penicillin and third-generation cephalosporin resistance in S. pneumoniae increased among both children and adults during the period before the introduction of PCV7 (2001-2010). Besides penicillin and cephalosporin, pneumococcal carbapenem and macrolide resistance increased among children. The rate of resistance to these antibiotics was higher among children than among adults. The introduction of PCV7 decreased the rate of non-susceptibility to ß-lactam antibiotics and the rate of multidrug resistant S. pneumoniae among children, but not among adults.

Evaluation of the modified carbapenem inactivation method for the detection of carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae.

Carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae (CPE) are increasing worldwide. Rapid and accurate detection of CPE is necessary for appropriate antimicrobial treatment and hospital infection control. However, CPE contains some strains that are difficult to detect depending on genotype and MIC value of carbapenem, and a detection method has not been established. The recently reported modified carbapenem inactivation method (mCIM) has been developed in CLSI M100-S27 as a phenotypic technique for detecting carbapenemase activity. In the present study, we examined mCIM as a new CPE detection method using 207 Enterobacteriaceae isolates in comparison with the three existing screening methods of modified Hodge test, Carba NP test and carbapenem inactivation method and evaluated its performance. Consequently, both the sensitivity and specificity of mCIM were 100%, indicating better results than the conventional screening methods. The mCIM is a useful tool for microbiology laboratories due to its simplicity, clear criteria, cost-effectiveness and availability at any laboratory.

Subcellular distribution of cyclin-dependent kinase-like 5 (CDKL5) is regulated through phosphorylation by dual specificity tyrosine-phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A (DYRK1A).

Cyclin-dependent kinase-like 5 (CDKL5) is a Ser/Thr protein kinase primarily expressed in the central nervous system and is known to cause X-linked neurodevelopmental disorders such as Rett syndrome. However, the mechanisms regulating CDKL5 have not yet been fully clarified. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the protein kinase that directly phosphorylates CDKL5, identifying it as dual specificity tyrosine-phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A (DYRK1A), an enzyme binding to and phosphorylating CDKL5. We showed that subcellular distribution of CDKL5 was regulated by its phosphorylation by DYRK1A. In mouse neuroblastoma Neuro2a cells, CDKL5 was localized in both the cytosol and nucleus, whereas DYRK1A showed a typical nuclear localization. When CDKL5 and DYRK1A were co-expressed, the cytosolic localization of CDKL5 was significantly increased. Results of site-directed mutagenesis revealed that the phosphorylation site was Ser-308, in the vicinity of the nuclear localization signal. A mutation mimicking the phosphorylated serine residue by aspartate substitution (S308D) changed CDKL5 localization to the cytosol, whereas the corresponding alanine-substituted analog, CDKL5(S308A), was primarily localized to the nucleus. Taken together, these results strongly suggested that DYRK1A bound to CDKL5 and phosphorylated it on Ser-308, thus interfering with its nuclear localization.

Nosocomial spread of Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates producing blaGES-4 carbapenemase at a Japanese hospital.

Six Klebsiella pneumoniae clinical isolates resistant to various cephalosporins and cephamycins were identified in a Japanese general hospital, a tertiary care hospital, between November 2009 and April 2010. All K. pneumoniae isolates carried blaGES-4 and blaSHV-1, while 2 K. pneumoniae isolates also harbored blaCTX-M-15. The pulsed-field gel electrophoresis patterns revealed that these 6 K. pneumoniae isolates were almost identical, suggesting their clonal relatedness. Plasmid profiles and conjugation assays revealed that these blaGES-4 genes were located on similar conjugative plasmids. These data indicate that nosocomial spread caused by K. pneumoniae isolates producing blaGES-4 carbapenemase occurred at a Japanese general hospital. K. pneumoniae isolate harboring blaGES-4 is rarely reported in Japan, and, to the best of our knowledge, this is the second report of K. pneumoniae isolates harboring blaGES-4 that occurred nosocomial spread in Japan.

High-performance CaMKI: A highly active and stable form of CaMKIδ produced by high-level soluble expression in Escherichia coli.

We describe here the expression and characterization of a constitutively active fragment of zebrafish Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMK) Iδ designated zCaMKIδ(1-299) that lacks an autoinhibitory domain. We used a simple one-step purification method to isolate the recombinant enzyme at high yield (220 mg/l of the culture medium) from the soluble fraction of lysates prepared from Escherichia coli. Unlike the corresponding fragment of CaMKIα (CaMKΙα(1-294)), the kinase activity of zCaMKIδ(1-299), without activation procedures, was comparable to that of wild-type zCaMKIδ activated by CaMK kinase. zCaMKIδ(1-299) exhibited broad substrate specificity highly similar to that of wild-type zCaMKIδ, and complementary to that of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit (PKAc). The protein kinase activity of zCaMKIδ(1-299) was higher compared with that of PKAc as well as CX-30K-CaMKII that comprises a constitutively active fragment of CaMKII fused to the N-terminal region of Xenopus CaMKI. Furthermore, kinase activity was highly stable against thermal inactivation and repeated freezing-thawing. Thus, zCaMKIδ(1-299) represents a readily available alternative that can be used as a "High-performance phosphorylating reagent" alone or in combination with PKAc in diverse experiments on protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation.

Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase phosphatase (CaMKP/PPM1F) interacts with neurofilament L and inhibits its filament association.

Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase phosphatase (CaMKP/PPM1F) is a Ser/Thr phosphatase that belongs to the PPM family. Growing evidence suggests that PPM phosphatases including CaMKP act as a complex with other proteins to regulate cellular functions. In this study, using the two-dimensional far-western blotting technique with digoxigenin-labeled CaMKP as a probe, in conjunction with peptide mass fingerprinting analysis, we identified neurofilament L (NFL) as a CaMKP-binding protein in a Triton-insoluble fraction of rat brain. We confirmed binding of fluorescein-labeled CaMKP (F-CaMKP) to NFL in solution by fluorescence polarization. The analysis showed that the dissociation constant of F-CaMKP for NFL is 73 ± 17 nM (n = 3). Co-immunoprecipitation assay using a cytosolic fraction of NGF-differentiated PC12 cells showed that endogenous CaMKP and NFL form a complex in cells. Furthermore, the effect of CaMKP on self-assembly of NFL was examined. Electron microscopy revealed that CaMKP markedly prevented NFL from forming large filamentous aggregates, suggesting that CaMKP-binding to NFL inhibits its filament association. These findings may provide new insights into a novel mechanism for regulating network formation of neurofilaments during neuronal differentiation.

Phosphorylated TandeMBP: A unique protein substrate for protein phosphatase assay.

To analyze a variety of protein phosphatases, we developed phosphorylated TandeMBP (P-TandeMBP), in which two different mouse myelin basic protein isoforms were fused in tandem, as a protein phosphatase substrate. P-TandeMBP was prepared efficiently in four steps: (1) phosphorylation of TandeMBP by a protein kinase mixture (Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase Iδ, casein kinase 1δ, and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 2); (2) precipitation of both P-TandeMBP and protein kinases to remove ATP, Pi, and ADP; (3) acid extraction of P-TandeMBP with HCl to remove protein kinases; and (4) neutralization of the solution that contains P-TandeMBP with Tris. In combination with the malachite green assay, P-TandeMBP can be used to detect protein phosphatase activity without using radioactive materials. Moreover, P-TandeMBP served as an efficient substrate for PPM family phosphatases (PPM1A, PPM1B, PPM1D, PPM1F, PPM1G, PPM1H, PPM1K, and PPM1M) and PPP family phosphatase PP5. Various phosphatase activities were also detected with high sensitivity in gel filtration fractions from mouse brain using P-TandeMBP. These results indicate that P-TandeMBP might be a powerful tool for the detection of protein phosphatase activities.

Community spread of extended-spectrum ß-lactamase-producing bacteria detected in social insurance hospitals throughout Japan.

We surveyed the status of community-acquired infections involving four extended-spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL)-producing bacteria (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Klebsiella oxytoca, Proteus mirabilis) isolated from clinical specimens from 11 social insurance hospitals in Japan in 2012. These are member hospitals of the Japan Community Healthcare Organization, an independent administrative hospital organization. The isolation rates for E. coli, K. pneumoniae, K. oxytoca, and P. mirabilis were 14.0% (165/1176), 3.3% (16/480), 3.1% (4/130), and 15.9% (17/107), respectively. The CTX-M-9 group, the most frequently detected genotype, was found in 77.0% (127/165) of E. coli and 43.8% (7/16) of K. pneumoniae isolates. Among K. oxytoca isolates, 75% (3/4) were the CTX-M-1 group, and all 17 P. mirabilis strains were the CTX-M-2 group. ESBL-producing bacteria isolation rates in each hospital ranged from 5.8% to 21.5% (median 9.5%), and the proportion of community-acquired infections among ESBL-producing bacteria isolates ranged from 1.6% to 30.8% (median 11.4%) in each hospital. Overall, the rates of ESBL-producing bacterial infection in all community-acquired infections and in all hospital infections were 10.6% (115/1081) and 10.7% (87/812), respectively. The ESBL-producing bacteria are not limited to certain regions or hospitals but are spreading in communities throughout Japan.

[The annual changes in antimicrobial susceptibility test results of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates from the Kinki district].

A study was conducted of the 1,225 Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains that were isolated at 20 medical institutions in the Kinki district between 2011 and 2013 to determine their antimicrobial susceptibility and to characterize the strains of multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MDRP) and the metallo-ß-lactamase (MBL) -producing strains. The MIC50/MIC90 values (µg/mL) of the various antimicrobial agents were as follows: imipenem, 2/>8; meropenem, 1/>8; doripenem, 0.5/8; biapenem, 1/>8; tazobactam/piperacillin, 8/>64; piperacillin, 8/>64; sulbactam/cefoperazone, 8/64; cefepime, 4/16; cefozopran, 2/>16; aztreonam, 8/>16; amikacin, 4/16; levofloxacin, 1/>4; and ciprofloxacin, 0.25/>2. From the viewpoint of the annual changes in the susceptibility rates (according to the CLSI guidelines [M100-S22]), the susceptibility to tazobactam/piperacillin, piperacillin, cefepime, cefozopran and aztreonam decreased in 2013. On the other hand, two antimicrobial agents showed high susceptibility rates each year; amikacin (94.0-95.6%) showed the highest rate, followed by doripenem (80.3-82.6%). With the exception of amikacin, there were substantial inter-institutional differences in antimicrobial susceptibility. In comparison to the previous CLSI guidelines (M100-S21), the new CLSI guidelines (M100-S22) on the use of carbapenems and penicillins show that the MIC80 has been affected. The MDRP detection rates in 2011, 2012 and 2013 were 1.8% (8 strains), 1.8% (8 strains), and 2.8% (10 strains), respectively. The MBL detection rates were as follows: bla(VIM-2), 0.2% (1 strain) in 2011; bla(IMP-1), 0.9% (4 strains) in 2012, and 1.7% (6 strains, including bla(IMP-1) [3 strains], bla(IMP-2) [2 strains] and bla(VIM-2) [1 strain]) in 2013.

Critical Determinants of Substrate Recognition by Cyclin-Dependent Kinase-like 5 (CDKL5).

Cyclin-dependent kinase-like 5 (CDKL5) is a Ser/Thr protein kinase known to be associated with X-linked neurodevelopmental disorders. In a previous study, we identified amphiphysin 1 (Amph1) as a potential substrate for CDKL5 and identified a single phosphorylation site at Ser-293. In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanisms of substrate recognition by CDKL5 using Amph1 as a model substrate. Amph1 served as an efficient CDKL5 substrate, whereas Amph2, a structurally related homologue of Amph1, was not phosphorylated by CDKL5. The sequence around the Amph1 phosphorylation site is RPR(293)SPSQ, while the corresponding sequence in Amph2 is IPK(332)SPSQ. To define the amino acid sequence specificity of the substrate, various point mutants of Amph1 and Amph2 were prepared and phosphorylated by CDKL5. Both Amph2(I329R) and Amph1 served as efficient CDKL5 substrates, but Amph1(R290I) did not, indicating that the arginyl residue at the P -3 position is critical for substrate recognition. With regard to prolyl residues around the phosphorylation site of Amph1, Pro-291 at the P -2 position, but not Pro-294 at the P +1 position, is indispensable for phosphorylation by CDKL5. Phosphorylation experiments using various deletion mutants of Amph1 revealed that the proline-rich domain (PRD) (amino acids 247-315) alone was not phosphorylated by CDKL5. In contrast, Amph1(247-385), which comprised the PRD and CLAP domains, served as an efficient CDKL5 substrate. These results, taken together, suggest that both the phosphorylation site sequence (RPXSX) and the CLAP domain structure in Amph1 play crucial roles in recognition and phosphorylation by CDKL5.