Repair of topoisomerase 1-induced DNA damage by tyrosyl-DNA phosphodiesterase 2 (TDP2) is dependent on its magnesium binding.

Topoisomerases are enzymes that relax DNA supercoiling during replication and transcription. Camptothecin, a topoisomerase 1 (TOP1) inhibitor, and its analogs trap TOP1 at the 3'-end of DNA as a DNA-bound intermediate, resulting in DNA damage that can kill cells. Drugs with this mechanism of action are widely used to treat cancers. It has previously been shown that tyrosyl-DNA phosphodiesterase 1 (TDP1) repairs TOP1-induced DNA damage generated by camptothecin. In addition, tyrosyl-DNA phosphodiesterase 2 (TDP2) plays critical roles in repairing topoisomerase 2 (TOP2)-induced DNA damage at the 5'-end of DNA and in promoting the repair of TOP1-induced DNA damage in the absence of TDP1. However, the catalytic mechanism by which TDP2 processes TOP1-induced DNA damage has not been elucidated. In this study, we found that a similar catalytic mechanism underlies the repair of TOP1- and TOP2-induced DNA damage by TDP2, with Mg2+-TDP2 binding playing a role in both repair mechanisms. We show chain-terminating nucleoside analogs are incorporated into DNA at the 3'-end and abort DNA replication to kill cells. Furthermore, we found that Mg2+-TDP2 binding also contributes to the repair of incorporated chain-terminating nucleoside analogs. Overall, these findings reveal the role played by Mg2+-TDP2 binding in the repair of both 3'- and 5'-blocking DNA damage.

Epigenetic effect of the mycotoxin fumonisin B1 on DNA methylation.

Mycotoxin fumonisin B1 (FB1) is a secondary metabolite that is produced by certain Fusarium species. Although numerous studies demonstrate toxic and carcinogenic effects of FB1, the underlying mechanisms have not been fully elucidated. In this study, we evaluated the epigenetic effects of FB1 for the first time using FLO assays, which detect epigenetic changes that affect the flocculation gene (FLO1) promoter activity in budding yeast. FLO assays showed increased reporter activities of the FLO1 promoter in the presence of 10 and 20 µM FB1. FB1 (20 µM) treatments also promoted flocculation. In subsequent in vitro methylation assays of a bacterial DNA methyltransferase (DNMT), FB1 treatments increased DNMT activities. Moreover, global DNA methylation was significantly increased in HEK293 cells treated with 100 µM FB1. Taken together, these results suggest that FB1 exposure leads to unique epigenetic alterations due to increased DNMT activities and demonstrate that FB1 may be an important risk factor for epigenetic dysfunction-associated human diseases including cancer.

Follow-up genotoxicity assessment of Ames-positive/equivocal chemicals using the improved thymidine kinase gene mutation assay in DNA repair-deficient human TK6 cells.

Genotoxicity testing plays an important role in the safety assessment of pharmaceuticals, pesticides and chemical substances. Among the guidelines for various genotoxicity tests, the in vitro genotoxicity test battery comprises the bacterial Ames test and mammalian cell assays. Several chemicals exhibit conflicting results for the bacterial Ames test and mammalian cell genotoxicity studies, which may stem from the differences in DNA repair capacity or metabolism, between different cell types or species. For better understanding the mechanistic implications regarding conflict outcomes between different assay systems, it is necessary to develop in vitro genotoxicity testing approaches with higher specificity towards DNA-damaging reagents. We have recently established an improved thymidine kinase (TK) gene mutation assay (TK assay) i.e. deficient in DNA excision repair system using human lymphoblastoid TK6 cells lacking XRCC1 and XPA (XRCC1-/-/XPA-/-), the core factors of base excision repair (BER) and nucleotide excision repair (NER), respectively. This DNA repair-deficient TK6 cell line is expected to specifically evaluate the genotoxic potential of chemical substances based on the DNA damage. We focussed on four reagents, N-(1-naphthyl)ethylenediamine dihydrochloride (NEDA), p-phenylenediamine (PPD), auramine and malachite green (MG) as the Ames test-positive chemicals. In our assay, assessment using XRCC1-/-/XPA-/- cells revealed no statistically significant increase in the mutant frequencies after treatment with NEDA, PPD and MG, suggesting the chemicals to be non-genotoxic in humans. The observations were consistent with that of the follow-up in vivo studies. In contrast, the mutant frequency was markedly increased in XRCC1-/-/XPA-/- cells after treatment with auramine. The results suggest that auramine is the genotoxic reagent that preferentially induces DNA damages resolved by BER and/or NER in mammals. Taken together, BER/NER-deficient cell-based genotoxicity testing will contribute to elucidate the mechanism of genotoxicity and therefore play a pivotal role in the accurate safety assessment of chemical substances.

Inhibitory effect of ochratoxin A on DNMT-mediated flocculation of yeast.

The mycotoxin ochratoxin A (OTA) is considered to be a human carcinogen. However, the mode of its carcinogenetic action has not been elucidated. Recently, it has become evident that epigenetic changes influence the risk of developing cancer. Since it has been revealed that the yeast flocculation displayed by the strains transformed with human DNA methyltransferases (DNMT) can be regulated by epigenetic mechanisms, we examined the effect of OTA on the transcription level of FLO1, which mediates the flocculation phenotype. OTA but not a non-carcinogenetic mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) inhibited the intensity of GFP fluorescence under the transcriptional regulation of FLO1 promoter in a dose-dependent manner. At the same time, OTA had no effect on the reporter activity under the control of modified FLO1 promoter with reduced CpG motifs. In addition, it was confirmed that the flocculation and FLO1 mRNA of DNMT gene-transformed yeast (DNMT yeast) were decreased by OTA. In vitro methylation assay using a bacterial DNMT revealed an inhibitory effect of OTA on the DNMT activity, and OTA treatment reduced the frequency of abnormally shaped nuclei which were often observed in DNMT yeast. These results suggest that the carcinogenicity of OTA may involve inhibition of DNMT-mediated epigenetic regulation.

Characterization of Sarcocystis fayeri's actin-depolymerizing factor as a toxin that causes diarrhea.

Raw horsemeat has the potential to induce food poisoning which often presents with diarrheal symptoms. A sample of horsemeat was found to be infected with Sarcocystis fayeri, and a 15-kDa protein isolated from the cysts of S. fayeri was found to clearly show its diarrhea-inducing activity. A nested polymerase chain reaction was used to clone the cDNA of the 15-kDa protein. The deduced amino acid sequence showed homology to actin-depolymerizing factor (ADF). A recombinant 15-kDa protein depolymerized prepolymerized actins in a test tube. The 15-kDa protein possessed conserved amino acid sequences of ADF of Toxoplasma gondii and Eimeria tenella. These characteristics indicate that the 15-kDa protein of S. fayeri belongs to the ADF/cofilin protein family. The recombinant 15-kDa protein evoked fluid accumulation in the looped ileum, resulting in diarrhea, but it did not kill the cultured fibroblast cells, macrophages or intestinal mucosal cells. In addition, the culture supernatant of the macrophages treated with the recombinant 15-kDa protein killed the fibroblast L929 cells. This fact indicates that ADF of S. fayeri induced cytotoxic substances, such as tumor necrosis factor-α, according to the published reports. Although further experiments are needed now to elucidate the enterotoxic mechanism of S. fayeri's ADF, our findings may offer new insight into research on parasites and parasite-instigated food poisoning.

Detection of epigenetic mutagens including anthracene-derived compounds using yeast FLO1 promoter GFP reporter gene assay.

Recently, we have reported that the FLO1-mediated flocculation levels of yeast are affected by an epigenetic mutagen, alizarin. Alizarin promoted flocculation and reduced the bulk levels of histone H3 in yeast cells. Since alizarin has been known to possess carcinogenesis-promoting properties, it is important to estimate the effect of alizarin-related compounds on epigenome as measured by the flocculation of yeast. In this study, we examined the effects of two anthracene-derived compounds other than alizarin on the flocculation level of yeast. Purpurin significantly promoted the flocculation in a dose-dependent manner. While, quinizarin had a weaker promoting effect than purpurin. The strain treated with purprin showed FLO1 mRNA upregulation and reduced histone H3 expression similarly to alizarin. We also confirmed that the purprin-treated cells frequently exhibited abnormally shaped nuclei. Moreover, fluorescence intensities of green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter under the FLO1 promoter control were dose-dependently increased by purprin and alizarin in the yeast. Taken together, these results suggest that the GFP reporter gene system utilising the FLO1 promoter is useful for the detection of epigenetic mutagens including anthracene-derived compounds.

Epigenetic mutagen as histone modulator can be detected by yeast flocculation.

We have previously reported that flocculation of a yeast co-transformed with the human DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) and DNMT3B genes was inhibited by DNMT inhibitors. It is well known that epigenetic mutagens can disturb nucleosome positioning via DNA methylation and/or histone modification. In this study we first examined the effects of trichostatin A (TSA), a histone deacetylase inhibitor, on the flocculation level of yeast. TSA dose-dependently promoted the flocculation exhibited by the yeast transformed with the DNMT genes or empty vectors. Furthermore, TSA induced the expression of the flocculin-encoding gene FLO1 The anthracene-derived alizarin, a natural madder root dye, has a potential for carcinogenesis promotion; however, the mode of action has not been elucidated. It is considered that epigenetic changes can promote cancer. Alizarin but not anthracene enhanced the flocculation level of the yeast. Similar to TSA, alizarin also upregulated FLO1 mRNA. Surprisingly, western blotting indicated that alizarin, but not anthracene, reduced the level of histone H3 in yeast, and alizarin-treated cells frequently displayed abnormally shaped nuclei. These findings suggest that alizarin uniquely influences nucleosome structure. Taken together with our previous findings, this study suggests that the DNMT gene-transformed yeast strains are a useful tool for screening various classes of epigenetic mutagens.

Human DNA methyltransferase gene-transformed yeasts display an inducible flocculation inhibited by 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine.

Mammalian DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) play an important role in establishing and maintaining the proper regulation of epigenetic information. However, it remains unclear whether mammalian DNMTs can be functionally expressed in yeasts, which probably lack endogenous DNMTs. We cotransformed the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae with the human DNMT1 gene, which encodes a methylation maintenance enzyme, and the DNMT3A/3B genes, which encode de novo methylation enzymes, in an expression vector also containing the GAL1 promoter, which is induced by galactose, and examined the effects of the DNMT inhibitor 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine (5AZ) on cell growth. Transformed yeast strains grown in galactose- and glucose-containing media showed growth inhibition, and their growth rate was unaffected by 5AZ. Conversely, 5AZ, but not 2'-deoxycytidine, dose-dependently interfered with the flocculation exhibited by DNMT-gene transformants grown in glucose-containing medium. Further investigation of the properties of this flocculation indicated that it may be dependent on the expression of a Flocculin-encoding gene, FLO1. Taken together, these findings suggest that DNMT-gene transformed yeast strains functionally express these enzymes and represent a useful tool for in vivo screening for DNMT inhibitors.

Lack of in vivo mutagenicity of carbendazim in the liver and glandular stomach of MutaMice.

BACKGROUND: Carbendazim (methyl 2-benzimidazolecarbamate, CASRN: 10605-21-7) exhibits spindle poisoning effects and is widely used as a fungicide. With respect to genotoxicity, carbendazim is deemed to be non-mutagenic in vitro, but it causes indicative DNA damage in vivo and chromosome aberrations in vitro and in vivo. In this study, we examined the mutagenicity of carbendazim in vivo. RESULTS: MutaMice were treated with carbendazim orally at doses of 0 (corn oil), 250, 500, and 1,000 mg/kg/day once a day for 28 days. A lacZ assay was used to determine the mutant frequency (MF) in the liver and glandular stomach of mice. MutaMice were administered up to the maximum dose recommended by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development Test Guidelines for Chemicals No. 488 (OECD TG488). The lacZ MFs in the liver and glandular stomach of carbendazim-treated animals were not significantly different from those in the negative control animals. In contrast, positive control animals exhibited a significant increase in MFs in both the liver and glandular stomach. CONCLUSIONS: Carbendazim is non-mutagenic in the liver and glandular stomach of MutaMice following oral treatment.

Role of toll-like receptor 4 in mediating multiorgan dysfunction in mice with acetaminophen induced acute liver failure.

Strategies for the prevention of multiorgan dysfunction (MOD) in acetaminophen (APAP)-induced acute liver failure (ALF) are an unmet need. Our study tested the hypothesis that sterile inflammation induced by APAP in a mouse model would activate toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) in the liver and extrahepatic organs and lead to the progression of ALF and MOD and that the administration of the novel TLR4 antagonist STM28 (a peptide formed of 17 amino-acids) would prevent liver injury and associated MOD. ALF and, subsequently, MOD were induced in TLR4-knockout (KO) mice (B6.B10ScN-Tlr4 (lpsdel) /JthJ) and wild-type (WT) mice (C57BL/6) with APAP (500 mg/kg). A second set of experiments was conducted to evaluate the effects of a pretreatment with a novel TLR4 antagonist, STM28, on APAP-induced MOD in CD1 mice. Animals were sacrificed at the coma stage, and plasma, peripheral blood cells, liver, kidneys, and brain were collected. Biochemistry values and cytokines were measured. Liver and kidneys were studied histologically and were stained for TLR4 and activated Kupffer cells, and the expression of nuclear factor kappa B-p65 was quantified with western blotting. Brain water was measured in the frontal cortex. After APAP administration, TLR4-KO (NFkBp65) mice were relatively protected from liver necrosis and end-organ dysfunction and had significantly better survival than WT controls (P < 0.01). STM28 attenuated liver injury and necrosis, reduced creatinine levels, and delayed the time to a coma significantly. The increases in cytokines in the plasma and liver, including TLR4 expression and the activation of Kupffer cells, after APAP administration were reduced significantly in the STM28-treated animals. The increased number of circulating myeloid cells was reduced significantly after STM28 treatment. In conclusion, these data provide evidence for an important role of the TLR4 antagonist in the prevention of the progression of APAP-induced ALF and MOD.

Considerations for the genotoxicity assessment of middle size peptide drugs containing non-canonical amino acid residues.

BACKGROUND: Middle size peptides (MSPs) have emerged as a promising new pharmaceutical modality. We are seeking the best way to assess the non-clinical safety of MSPs. CONSIDERATION: The requirements for assessing the genotoxicity of pharmaceuticals differ between small molecule drugs and biotherapeutics. Genotoxicity tests are necessary for small molecule drugs but not for biotherapeutics. MSPs, however, share similarities with both small molecule drugs and biotherapeutics. Here, we describe important points to consider in assessing the genotoxicity of MSP drugs. The current standard of genotoxicity assessment for small molecules may not be entirely appropriate for MSP drugs. MSP drugs need genotoxicity assessment mostly according to the current standard of small molecule drugs. CONCLUSION: We propose a few modifications to the standard test battery of genotoxicity tests, specifically, the inclusion of an in vitro gene mutation test using mammalian cells, and exclusion of (Q)SAR assessment on MSP-related impurities.

Detection of in vivo mutagenicity in rat liver samples using error-corrected sequencing techniques.

BACKGROUND: Mutagenicity, the ability of chemical agents to cause mutations and potentially lead to cancer, is a critical aspect of substance safety assessment for protecting human health and the environment. Metabolic enzymes activate multiple mutagens in living organisms, thus in vivo animal models provide highly important information for evaluating mutagenicity in human. Rats are considered suitable models as they share a similar metabolic pathway with humans for processing toxic chemical and exhibit higher responsiveness to chemical carcinogens than mice. To assess mutagenicity in rats, transgenic rodents (TGRs) are widely used for in vivo gene mutation assays. However, such assays are labor-intensive and could only detect transgene mutations inserted into the genome. Therefore, introducing a technology to directly detect in vivo mutagenicity in rats would be necessary. The next-generation sequencing (NGS) based error-corrected sequencing technique is a promising approach for such purposes. RESULTS: We investigated the applicability of paired-end and complementary consensus sequencing (PECC-Seq), an error-corrected sequencing technique, for detecting in vivo mutagenicity in the rat liver samples. PECC-Seq allows for the direct detection of ultra-rare somatic mutations in the genomic DNA without being constrained by the genomic locus, tissue, or organism. We tested PECC-Seq feasibility in rats treated with diethylnitrosamine (DEN), a mutagenic compound. Interestingly, the mutation and mutant frequencies between PECC-Seq and the TGR assay displayed a promising correlation. Our results also demonstrated that PECC-Seq could successfully detect the A:T > T:A mutation in rat liver samples, consistent with the TGR assay. Furthermore, we calculated the trinucleotide mutation frequency and proved that PECC-Seq accurately identified the DEN treatment-induced mutational signatures. CONCLUSIONS: Our study provides the first evidence of using PECC-Seq for in vivo mutagenicity detection in rat liver samples. This approach could provide a valuable alternative to conventional TGR assays as it is labor- and time-efficient and eliminates the need for transgenic rodents. Error-corrected sequencing techniques, such as PECC-Seq, represent promising approaches for enhancing mutagenicity assessment and advancing regulatory science.

In vivo mutagenicity assessment of styrene in MutaMouse liver and lung.

BACKGROUND: Styrene (CAS 100-42-5) is widely used as polystyrene and acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene resin such as plastic, rubber, and paint. One of the primary uses of styrene is food utensils and containers, but a small amount of styrene transferred into food can be ingested by eating. Styrene is metabolized into styrene 7,8-oxide (SO). SO is mutagenic in bacteria and mouse lymphoma assays. It is clastogenic in cultured mammalian cells. However, styrene and SO are not clastogenic/aneugenic in rodents, and no rodent in vivo gene mutation studies were identified. METHODS: To investigate the mutagenicity of orally administered styrene, we used the transgenic rodent gene mutation assay to perform an in vivo mutagenicity test (OECD TG488). The transgenic MutaMouse was given styrene orally at doses of 0 (corn oil; negative control), 75, 150, and 300 mg/kg/day for 28 days, and mutant frequencies (MFs) were determined using the lacZ assay in the liver and lung (five male mice/group). RESULTS: There were no significant differences in the MFs of the liver and lung up to 300 mg/kg/day (close to maximum tolerable dose (MTD)), when one animal with extremely high MFs that were attributed to an incidental clonal mutation was omitted. Positive and negative controls produced the expected results. CONCLUSIONS: These findings show that styrene is not mutagenic in the liver and lung of MutaMouse under this experimental condition.

In vivo mutagenicity assessment of orally treated tert-butyl hydroperoxide in the liver and glandular stomach of MutaMouse.

BACKGROUND: tert-Butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP; CAS 75-91-2), a hydroperoxide, is mainly used as a polymerization initiator to produce polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, and unsaturated polyester. It is a high-production chemical, widely used in industrial countries, including Japan. TBHP is also used as an additive for the manufacturing of food utensils, containers, and packaging (UCP). Therefore, there could be consumer exposure through oral intake of TBHP eluted from UCPs. TBHP was investigated in various in vitro and in vivo genotoxicity assays. In Ames tests, some positive results were reported with and/or without metabolic activation. As for the mouse lymphoma assay, the positive result was reported, regardless of the presence or absence of metabolic activation enzymes. The results of some chromosomal aberrations test and comet assay in vitro also demonstrated the genotoxic positive results. On the other hand, in in vivo tests, there are negative results in the bone marrow micronucleus test of TBHP-administered mice by single intravenous injection and the bone marrow chromosomal aberration test using rats exposed to TBHP for 5 days by inhalation. Also, about dominant lethal tests, the genotoxic positive results appeared. In contrast, there is little information about in vivo mutagenicity and no information about carcinogenicity by oral exposure. RESULTS: We conducted in vivo gene mutation assay using MutaMice according to the OECD Guidelines for the Testing of Chemicals No. 488 to investigate in vivo mutagenicity of TBHP through oral exposure. After repeated dosing for 28 days, there were no significant differences in the mutant frequencies (MFs) of the liver and glandular stomach up to 300 mg/kg/day (close to the maximum tolerable dose (MTD)). The positive and negative controls produced the expected responses. CONCLUSIONS: These findings show that orally administrated TBHP is not mutagenic in the mouse liver and glandular stomach under these experimental conditions.

[New trend in genotoxicity research taking into account genome instability].

Since mutagenicity which can induce permanent transmissible changes in the structure of the genetic material is one of the major causes of cancer, research for genotoxicity including mutagenicity has focused on cancer hazard identification. Thus, it has been assumed that there was no threshold in mutagenesis. On the other hand, tumor development induced by not only non-genotoxic carcinogen but also genotoxic carcinogens will likely show a practical threshold. Therefore, statistical evaluation can provide value of the benchmark dose lower confidence limit (BMDL) calculated by approaches for the determination of genetic toxicity point of departure (PoD). In addition, disruption of epigenetic regulation which affect transcription through alteration of chromatin structure is considered to be important in future genotoxicity research. Taking into account benchmark dose or epigenetics will help improve assessment of genotoxicity, which offer promising insight into understanding genomic instability. Overall, this review presents current trends for future assessments of genotoxicity.

Bisphenol-A reduces DNA methylation after metabolic activation.

Bisphenol-A (BPA) is an important environmental contaminant with adverse health effects suspected to be mediated through epigenetic mechanisms. We had reported that the FLO1-dependent flocculation of transgenic yeast expressing human DNA methyltransferase (DNMT yeast) is a useful tool in epigenotoxicology studies. In this report, we have investigated the effects of BPA in the presence of metabolic activation (S-9 mix) on the transcription level of the FLO1 gene in the DNMT yeast. In the presence of metabolic activation, BPA inhibited the intensity of green fluorescence reporter protein (GFP) driven by the FLO1 promoter. A metabolite of BPA, 4-methyl-2,4-bis(p-hydroxyphenyl) pent-1-ene (MBP), also exhibited similar inhibitory effect. Furthermore, BPA in the presence of S-9 mix had only a weak while MBP had no inhibitory effects on the expression of modified GFP reporter gene under the control of FLO1 promoter with reduced CpG motifs. Aforementioned behavior was confirmed by the inhibition of flocculation as well as FLO1 gene mRNA expression. In addition, the global DNA methylation level in the human HEK293 cells was also reduced by MBP. These results indicate that BPA metabolites have inhibitory effect on DNA methylation. Our approach offers a novel in vitro method for screening for chemicals that can alter the epigenome by a mechanism dependent on their metabolic activation.

Potent mutagenicity of an azide, 3-azido-1,2-propanediol, in human TK6 cells.

Sodium azide is a strong mutagen that has been successfully employed in mutation breeding of crop plants. In biological systems, it is metabolically converted to the proximate mutagen azidoalanine, which requires further bioactivation to a putative ultimate mutagen that remains elusive. The nature of the DNA modifications induced by azides leading to mutations is also unknown. Other mutagenic organic azido compounds seem to share the same bioactivation pathway to the ultimate mutagenic species as they induce point mutations dependent on the same DNA repair pathways. We investigated mutations induced by the representative mutagen 3-azido-1,2-propanediol (azidoglycerol, AZG) in the human TK6 cell line. Until now, azides have been considered to be non-mutagens and non-carcinogens in mammals, including humans, as judged only by the conventional clastogenicity chromosomal aberration types of bioassays. Here, we show the potent mutagenicity of AZG in cultured human cells, comparable to alkylating agents such as methyl methanesulfonate at concentrations with similar lethality. The potent ability of an organic azide to induce base substitutions in a mammalian system raises an alert with respect to human exposure to organic and inorganic azido compounds.

Genotoxicity assessment of food-flavoring chemicals used in Japan.

We assessed the genotoxicity of 30 food-flavoring chemicals used in Japan that have not been investigated before. These 30 food-flavoring chemicals have representative chemical structures belonging to 18 chemical classes. The Ames and chromosomal aberration (CA) tests (in vitro tests) were first conducted in accordance with the "Food Additive Risk Assessment Guidelines" of the Japan Food Safety Commission. If the in vitro test yielded a positive result, an in vivo micronucleus test or a transgenic mouse gene mutation assay was performed to verify the in vitro test results. Of the 30 food-flavoring chemicals, 3 yielded a positive result in both Ames and CA tests. Another 11 chemicals yielded positive results in the CA test. However, none of the chemicals yielding positive in vitro test results yielded positive results in the in vivo tests. These findings indicate no genotoxicity concerns of the food-flavoring chemicals belonging to the abovementioned 18 chemical classes used in Japan unless there are other structural modifications.

In vivo genotoxicity assessment of a multiwalled carbon nanotube in a mouse ex vivo culture.

BACKGROUND: Multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) are suspected lung carcinogens because their shape and size are similar to asbestos. Various MWCNT types are manufactured; however, only MWNT-7 is classified into Group 2B by The International Agency for Research on Cancer. MWNT-7's carcinogenicity is strongly related to inflammatory reactions. On the other hand, inconsistent results on MWNT-7 genotoxicity have been reported. We previously observed no significant differences in both Pig-a (blood) and gpt (lung) mutant frequencies between MWNT-7-intratracheally treated and negative control rats. In this study, to investigate in vivo MWNT-7 genotoxicity on various endpoints, we attempted to develop a lung micronucleus assay through ex vivo culture targeting the cellular fraction of Clara cells and alveolar Type II (AT-II) cells, known as the initiating cells of lung cancer. Using this system, we analyzed the in vivo MWNT-7 genotoxicity induced by both whole-body inhalation exposure and intratracheal instillation. We also conducted an erythrocyte micronucleus assay using the samples obtained from animals under intratracheal instillation to investigate the tissue specificity of MWNT-7 induced genotoxicities. RESULTS:  We detected a significant increase in the incidence of micronucleated cells derived from the cellular fraction of Clara cells and AT-II cells in both MWNT-7-treated and positive control groups compared to the negative control group under both whole-body inhalation exposures and intratracheal instillation. Additionally, the erythrocyte micronucleus assay detected a significant increase in the incidence of micronucleated reticulocytes only in the positive control group. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicated that MWNT-7 was genotoxic in the lungs directly exposed by both the body inhalation and intratracheal instillation but not in the hematopoietic tissue.

In vivo and in vitro mutagenicity of perillaldehyde and cinnamaldehyde.

BACKGROUND: Perillaldehyde and cinnamaldehyde are natural substances found in plants that are used as flavoring ingredients. Due to the α,ß-unsaturated aldehydes in their structures, these compounds are expected to be DNA reactive. Indeed, several reports have indicated that perillaldehyde and cinnamaldehyde show positive in in vitro and in vivo genotoxicity tests. However, their genotoxic potentials are currently disputed. To clarify the mutagenicity of perillaldehyde and cinnamaldehyde, we conducted in silico quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) analysis, in vitro Ames tests, and in vivo transgenic rodent gene mutation (TGR) assays. RESULTS: In Ames tests, perillaldehyde was negative and cinnamaldehyde was positive; these respective results were supported by QSAR analysis. In TGR assays, we treated Muta™ Mice with perillaldehyde and gpt-delta mice with cinnamaldehyde up to the maximum tested doses (1000 mg/kg/day). There was no increase in gene mutations in the liver, glandular stomach, or small intestine following all treatments except the positive control (N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea at 100 mg/kg/day). CONCLUSIONS: These data clearly show no evidence of in vivo mutagenic potentials of perillaldehyde and cinnamaldehyde (administered up to 1000 mg/kg/day) in mice; however, cinnamaldehyde is mutagenic in vitro.