New Perspectives on the Sustainable Employment of Chestnut Shells as Active Ingredient against Oral Mucositis: A First Screening.

Oral mucositis (OM), a common side effect of oncological treatment, is an oral mucosal disorder characterized by painful ulcerations and increased risk of infection. The use of natural antioxidants to suppress the redox imbalance responsible for the OM condition has emerged as an interesting approach to prevent/treat OM. This study aims to explore the chestnut (Castana sativa) shells as potential active ingredient against OM. Therefore, chestnut shells were extracted at different temperatures (110-180 °C) by Subcritical Water Extraction (SWE), aiming to recover antioxidants. The extracts were also evaluated against microorganisms present in the oral cavity as well as on human oral cell lines (TR146 and HSC3). The highest phenolic content was obtained with the extraction temperature of 110 °C, exhibiting the best antioxidant/antiradical activities and scavenging efficiencies against HOCl (IC50 = 4.47 µg/mL) and ROO• (0.73 µmol TE/mg DW). High concentrations of phenolic acids (e.g., gallic and protocatechuic acids) and flavanoids (catechin, epicatechin and rutin) characterized the phenolic profile. The antimicrobial activity against several oral microorganisms present in the oral cavity during OM, such as Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Enterococcus, and Escherichia, was demonstrated. Finally, the effects on HSC3 and TR146 cell lines revealed that the extract prepared at 110 °C had the lowest IC50 (1325.03 and 468.15 µg/mL, respectively). This study highlights the potential effects of chestnut shells on OM.

New technological approaches for recovering bioactive food constituents from sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) stems.

INTRODUCTION: In recent years, an increasing interest in biological properties of sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) stems has resulted in increased attention for advanced extraction techniques and their optimisation. OBJECTIVES: In the present study chemical profiles of P. avium stems extracts obtained by selected emerging technologies, such as pressurised liquid extraction (PLE) and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), under different experimental conditions were compared. MATERIAL AND METHODS: All SFEs were carried out at 40°C in a dynamic mode with different solvent combinations (CO2 plus ethanol at 7 and 15%) and pressures (150 and 300 bar). The PLE experiments were performed in a static mode for all tested combinations of extraction solvent (ethanol-water from 0% to 100%) at temperatures ranging from 40 to 200°C. A complete analytical characterisation of cherry stem extracts was performed by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionisation quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS). RESULTS: PLE showed to be more efficient than SFE removing a wide variety of compounds with different polarities being phenols the most abundant, whereas SFE resulted in a higher amount of fatty acids and derivatives. Chemical characterisation of the extracts was carried out by HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS yielding in total 42 identified compounds, among which 22 compounds were identified in P. avium stems for the first time. CONCLUSION: These results point out the possibility of sweet cherry stem extracts to be incorporated in formulations manufactured by food and pharmaceutical industry. Also, these new thermal and high-pressure industrial technologies proved to be promising candidates in the valorisation of sweet cherry by-product.

Comparative Assessment of Phytochemical Profiles of Comfrey (Symphytum officinale L.) Root Extracts Obtained by Different Extraction Techniques.

In this work a comparative study on phytochemical profiles of comfrey root extracts obtained by different extraction approaches has been carried out. Chemical profiles of extracts obtained by supercritical fluid (SFE), pressurized liquid (PLE), and conventional solid/liquid extraction were compared and discussed. Phytochemical composition was assessed by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS) identifying 39 compounds reported for the first time in comfrey root, mainly phenolic acids and fatty acids. The influence of different extraction parameters on phytochemical profiles of S. officinale root was investigated for all applied techniques. PLE and maceration, using alcohol-based solvents (aqueous methanol or ethanol), were shown to be more efficient in the recovery of more polar compounds. Greater numbers of phenolics were best extracted by PLE using 85% EtOH at 63 °C. The use of SFE and 100% acetone for 30 min enabled good recoveries of nonpolar compounds. SFE using 15% EtOH as a cosolvent at 150 bar produced the best recoveries of a significant number of fatty acids. The main compositional differences between extracts obtained by different extraction techniques were assigned to the solvent type. Hence, these results provided comprehensive approaches for treating comfrey root enriched in different phytochemicals, thereby enhancing its bioaccessibility.

Vine-Canes as a Source of Value-Added Compounds for Cosmetic Formulations.

The majority of works about vine-canes are focused on the evaluation of their chemical composition and antioxidant potential. To the best of our knowledge, the possible applications of produced extracts in cosmetic formulations have never been explored. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the antioxidant properties of vine-canes subcritical water extracts for use as active ingredients in the cosmetic industry. For that, the phenolic content and antioxidant activity of six vine-cane varieties, namely Alvarinho and Loureiro from the Minho region and Touriga Nacional and Tinta Roriz (TR) from both the Douro and Dão regions, were evaluated through spectrophotometric and chromatographic methods. All extracts presented similar antioxidant activity and the highest phenolic content was reported for TR variety from the Douro region (33.7 ± 1.9 mg GAE/g dw). The capacity of vine-cane extracts to capture reactive oxygen species superoxide (O2-) was also studied, with the highest IC50 value being obtained for Loureiro variety (56.68 ± 2.60 µg/mL). Furthermore, no adverse effects on HaCaT and HFF-1 dermal cell lines in concentrations below 100 and 1000 µg/mL, respectively, were determined. Finally, Loureiro vine-cane extract was incorporated into a topical formulation, and physical and microbiological properties were within expected values, demonstrating that vine-canes extracts can be successfully incorporated in cosmetic products.

Simultaneous dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction derivatisation and gas chromatography mass spectrometry analysis of subcritical water extracts of sweet and sour cherry stems.

Cherry stems have been used in traditional medicine mostly for the treatment of urinary tract infections. Extraction with subcritical water, according to its selectivity, efficiency and other aspects, differs substantially from conventional extraction techniques. The complexity of plant subcritical water extracts is due to the ability of subcritical water to extract different chemical classes of different physico-chemical properties and polarities in a single run. In this paper, dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) with simultaneous derivatisation was optimised for the analysis of complex subcritical water extracts of cherry stems to allow simple and rapid preparation prior to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). After defining optimal extracting and dispersive solvents, the optimised method was used for the identification of compounds belonging to different chemical classes in a single analytical run. The developed sample preparation protocol enabled simultaneous extraction and derivatisation, as well as convenient coupling with GC-MS analysis, reducing the analysis time and number of steps. The applied analytical protocol allowed simple and rapid chemical screening of subcritical water extracts and was used for the comparison of subcritical water extracts of sweet and sour cherry stems. Graphical abstract DLLME GC MS analysis of cherry stem extracts obtained by subcritical water.

Liquid by-products from fish canning industry as sustainable sources of ω3 lipids.

Fish canning industry generates large amounts of liquid wastes, which are discarded, after proper treatment to remove the organic load. However, alternative treatment processes may also be designed in order to target the recovery of valuable compounds; with this procedure, these wastewaters are converted into liquid by-products, becoming an additional source of revenue for the company. This study evaluated green and economically sustainable methodologies for the extraction of ω3 lipids from fish canning liquid by-products. Lipids were extracted by processes combining physical and chemical parameters (conventional and pressurized extraction processes), as well as chemical and biological parameters. Furthermore, LCA was applied to evaluate the environmental performance and costs indicators for each process. Results indicated that extraction with high hydrostatic pressure provides the highest amounts of ω3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (3331,5 mg L-1 effluent), apart from presenting the lowest environmental impact and costs. The studied procedures allow to obtain alternative, sustainable and traceable sources of ω3 lipids for further applications in food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Additionally, such approach contributes towards the organic depuration of canning liquid effluents, therefore reducing the overall waste treatment costs.

Comparative analysis of antioxidant, antimicrobiological and cytotoxic activities of native and fermented chamomile ligulate flower extracts.

MAIN CONCLUSION: The work investigated differences in apigenin content, as well as in other compounds, and examined the chemical profiles, antioxidant, antimicrobial and cytotoxic effects of extracts obtained from native and fermented chamomile ligulate flowers. Chamomile (Chamomilla recutita L.) has a long history of being used as a medicinal plant due to many health benefits, including antiinflammatory, anticancer, antispasmodic, radical-scavenging effects and others. Apigenin is recognized as one of the most bioactive phenolic compounds in chamomile. In comparison to its bound forms, which include mostly apigenin-7-O-ß-glucoside and various acylated forms, the aglycone is attributed with much higher bioactivity. Due to this fact, in this work ligulate florets of chamomile anthodium were subjected to a fermentation process using native chamomile enzymes to hydrolyze bound forms of apigenin to free aglycone. The contents of apigenin and apigenin-7-O-ß-glucoside were determined in both fermented and nonfermented samples by UHPLC-MS-MS analysis to define the efficiency of conversion. After defining their chemical profiles, the extracts of fermented and nonfermented chamomile samples were also compared with respect to their antioxidant, antimicrobial and cytotoxic effects. The antioxidant effects of the obtained extracts were defined by electron spin resonance analysis for hydroxyl and superoxide radicals. The antimicrobial activity was defined for eight microbial strains, whereas cytotoxic activity was evaluated using two human cell lines (human cervix carcinoma and human rhabdomyosarcoma) and murine fibroblasts.

Artificial neural network approach to modelling of metal contents in different types of chocolates.

The relationships between the contents of various metals in different types of chocolates were studied using chemometric approach. Chemometric analysis was based on the application of artificial neural networks (ANN). ANN was performed in order to select the significant models for predicting the metal contents. ANN equations, that represent the content of one metal as a function of the contents of other metals were established. The statistical quality of the generated mathematical models was determined by standard statistical measures and cross-validation parameters. High agreement between experimental and predicted values, obtained in the validation procedure, indicated the good quality of the models. The obtained results indicate the possibility of predicting the metal contents in different types of chocolate.

Rosmarinus officinalis leaves as a natural source of bioactive compounds.

In an extensive search for bioactive compounds from plant sources, the composition of different extracts of rosemary leaves collected from different geographical zones of Serbia was studied. The qualitative and quantitative characterization of 20 rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) samples, obtained by microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), was determined by high performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray quadrupole-time of flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS). The high mass accuracy and true isotopic pattern in both MS and MS/MS spectra provided by the QTOF-MS analyzer enabled the characterization of a wide range of phenolic compounds in the extracts, including flavonoids, phenolic diterpenes and abietan-type triterpenoids, among others. According to the data compiled, rosemary samples from Sokobanja presented the highest levels in flavonoids and other compounds such as carnosol, rosmaridiphenol, rosmadial, rosmarinic acid, and carnosic acid. On the other hand, higher contents in triterpenes were found in the extracts of rosemary from Glozan (Vojvodina).

Uptake of (14)C-atropine and/or its transformation products from soil by wheat (Triticum aestivum var Kronjet) and their translocation to shoots.

Plant uptake of toxins and their translocation to edible plant parts are important processes in the transfer of contaminants into the food chain. Atropine, a highly toxic muscarine receptor antagonist produced by Solanacea species, is found in all plant tissues and can enter the soil and hence be available for uptake by crops. The absorption of atropine and/or its transformation products from soil by wheat (Triticum aestivum var Kronjet) and its distribution to shoots was investigated by growing wheat in soil spiked with unlabeled or (14)C-labeled atropine. Radioactivity attributable to (14)C-atropine and its transformation products was measurable in plants sampled at 15 d after sowing (DAS) and thereafter until the end of experiment. The highest accumulation of (14)C-atropine and/or its transformation products by plants was detected in leaves (between 73 and 90% of the total accumulated) with lower amounts in stems, roots, and seeds (approximately 14%, 9%, and 3%, respectively). (14)C-Atropine and/or its transformation products were detected in soil leachate at 30, 60, and 90 DAS and were strongly adsorbed to soil, with 60% of the applied dose adsorbed at 30 DAS, plateauing at 70% from 60 DAS. Unlabeled atropine was detected in shoots 30 DAS at a concentration of 3.9 ± 0.1 µg kg(-1) (mean ± SD). The observed bioconcentration factor was 2.3 ± 0.04. The results suggest a potential risk of atropine toxicity to consumers.

QSRR modeling of retention behavior of some s-triazine derivatives.

The properties relevant to lipophilicity of four series of synthesized s-triazine derivatives have been studied by quantitative structure-retention relationship (QSRR) approach. Examination of chromatographic behavior revealed a linear correlation between RM values and the volume fraction of mobile phase modifier. Furthermore, a reliable relationship was defined between the retention constants, RM0, and theoretically calculated bioactivity descriptors for lipophilicity and solubility. Principal component analysis (PCA) followed by multiple linear regression (MLR) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) was performed to identify the most important factors, to quantify their influences, and to select descriptors that best describe the behavior of the compounds investigated. The best QSRR models were further validated by leave one out technique as well as by the calculation of statistical parameters for the established theoretical models. The RM0 values of the investigated s-triazine derivatives have been recommended for description of their lipophilicity and evaluation of pharmacokinetic properties.

Development and Characterization of Functional Cookies Enriched with Chestnut Shells Extract as Source of Bioactive Phenolic Compounds.

Chestnut (Castanea sativa) shells (CSs), an undervalued agro-industrial biowaste, have arisen as a source of bioactive compounds with promising health-promoting effects. This study attempted, for the first time, to develop a functional food, namely cookies, using a CS extract obtained by an eco-friendly technology (subcritical water extraction). The cookies were characterized regarding their nutritional composition, total phenolic and flavonoid contents (TPC and TFC, respectively), antioxidant/antiradical activities, phenolic profile, and sensory evaluation. The results demonstrated that the CS-extract-enriched cookies were mainly composed of carbohydrates (53.92% on dry weight (dw)), fat (32.62% dw), and fiber (5.15% dw). The phenolic profile outlined by HPLC-PDA revealed the presence of phenolic acids, flavonoids, and hydrolysable tannins, attesting to the high TPC and TFC. The in vitro antioxidant/antiradical effects proved the bioactivity of the functional cookies, while the sensory evaluation unveiled excellent scores on all attributes (≥6.25). The heatmap diagram corroborated strong correlations between the TPC and antioxidant/antiradical properties, predicting that the appreciated sensory attributes were closely correlated with high carbohydrates and phenolic compounds. This study encourages the sustainable recovery of antioxidants from CSs and their further employment as an active nutraceutical ingredient in functional cookies.

The Chemical Variability, Nutraceutical Value, and Food-Industry and Cosmetic Applications of Citrus Plants: A Critical Review.

Citrus fruits occupy an important position in the context of the fruit trade, considering that both fresh fruits and processed products are produced on a large scale. Citrus fruits are recognized as an essential component of the human diet, thanks to their high content of beneficial nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, terpenes, flavonoids, coumarins and dietary fibers. Among these, a wide range of positive biological activities are attributed to terpenes and flavonoids derivatives. In this review, a list of bibliographic reports (from 2015 onwards) on the phytochemical composition, beneficial effects and potential applications of citrus fruits and their by-products is systematically summarized. In detail, information regarding the nutraceutical and medicinal value closely linked to the presence of numerous bioactive metabolites and their growing use in the food industry and food packaging, also considering any technological strategies such as encapsulation to guarantee their stability over time, were evaluated. In addition, since citrus fruit, as well as its by-products, are interesting alternatives for the reformulation of natural cosmetic products, the sector of the cosmetic industry is also explored. More in-depth knowledge of the latest information in this field will contribute to future conscious use of citrus fruits.

The Essential Oil of Tunisian Halophyte Lobularia maritima: A Natural Food Preservative Agent of Ground Beef Meat.

This study was directed towards the investigation of the chemical composition and antimicrobial properties of the essential oil of Tunisian halophyte Lobularia maritime (LmEO). The antibacterial effects against major food-borne pathogenic and food spoilage bacteria were tested using the well diffusion method, followed by the determination of the minimum inhibitory (MIC) and bactericidal (MBC) concentrations. The essential oil has shown strong antimicrobial activity against eight pathogenic strains, which was attributed mostly to predominant constituents of the essential oil: benzyl alcohol, linalool, terpien-4-ol and globulol, as well as to synergistic effects of its major and minor constituents. Considering strong antimicrobial effects of the tested essential oil, it was further tested as a natural alternative to food preservatives, using minced beef meat as a model system. Minced beef meat was spiked with 0.019, 0.038, and 0.076% of the essential oil and stored during 14 days at 4 °C, monitoring its microbiological, physicochemical, and sensory properties. Chemical analyses revealed that meat treated with 0.076% of LmEO at underwent a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in primary and secondary lipid oxidation and reduced metmyoglobin accumulation compared with control samples. Furthermore, microflora proliferation in the meat model system spiked with 0.076% of LmEO was significantly (p < 0.05) reduced in comparison to control. In addition, two multivariate exploratory techniques, namely principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical analysis (HCA), were applied to the obtained data sets to describe the relationship between the main characteristics of the meat samples with and without essential oil addition. The chemometric approach highlighted the relationships between meat quality parameters. Overall, results indicated that the essential oil of Lobularia maritima deserves to be considered as a natural preservative in the meat industry.

Variability in Biological Activities of Satureja montana Subsp. montana and Subsp. variegata Based on Different Extraction Methods.

Winter savory (Satureja montana L.) is a well-known spice and medicinal plant with a wide range of activities and applications. Two subspecies of S. montana, subsp. montana and subsp. variegata, were used for the preparation of seven different extracts: steam distillation (essential oil (EO) and hydrolate (HY)), subcritical water (SWE), ultrasound-assisted (UAE-MeOH and UAE-H2O), and microwave-assisted (MAE-MeOH and MAE-H2O) extraction. The obtained EOs, HYs, and extracts were used for an in vitro evaluation of the antioxidant activity (DPPH, ABTS, reducing power, and superoxide anion methods) and in vitro antimicrobial activity against Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Salmonella Typhimurium, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Candida albicans. The antimicrobial screening was conducted using disk-diffusion assessment, minimal inhibitory concentration, time-kill kinetics modeling, and pharmacodynamic study of the biocide effect. The total phenolic content (TPC) was highest in EO, followed by SWE, MAE, and UAE, and the lowest was in HY. The highest antimicrobial activity shows EO and SWE for both varieties, while different UAE and MAE extracts have not exhibited antimicrobial activity. The natural antimicrobials in the S. montana extract samples obtained by green extraction methods, indicated the possibility of ecologically and economically better solutions for future in vivo application of the selected plant subspecies.

Salicornia ramosissima: A New Green Cosmetic Ingredient with Promising Skin Effects.

This study aims to validate a new cosmetic ingredient from Salicornia ramosissima S J. Woods through in vitro and ex vivo assays. The halophyte extracts were obtained by subcritical water extraction (SWE) at different temperatures (110, 120, 140, 160 and 180 °C). The antioxidant/radical scavenging activities and the phenolic profile were screened for all extracts. The optimal extract was assessed in keratinocytes and fibroblasts, while permeation assays were performed in Franz cells. The inhibitory activity of hyaluronidase and elastase was also evaluated. The sample extracted at 180 °C presented the highest phenolic content (1739.28 mg/100 g of dry weight (dw)). Despite not being efficient in the sequestration of ABTS•+, this extract scavenged the DPPH• (IC50 = 824.57 µg/mL). The scavenging capacity of superoxide (O2•-) and hypochlorous acid (HOCl) was also considerable (respectively, IC50 = 158.87 µg/mL and IC50 = 5.80 µg/mL). The cell viability assays confirmed the absence of negative effects on keratinocytes, while the fibroblasts' viability slightly decreased. The ex vivo permeation of rutin, quercetin and syringic acid after 24 h was, respectively, 11, 20 and 11%. Additionally, the extract showed a good elastase and hyaluronidase inhibitory activity. The results obtained support the S. ramosissima bioactivity as a cosmetic ingredient.

Chemical composition and bioactivity of oilseed cake extracts obtained by subcritical and modified subcritical water.

Recovery of bioactive compounds from biowaste is gaining more and more interest in circular economy models. The oilseed cakes are usually insufficiently exploited by most technologies since they represent valuable matrices abundant in proteins, minerals, and phytochemicals, but their use is mostly limited to feed ingredients, fertilizers or biofuel production. This study was thus focused on the exploration of new valorization pathways of oilseed cakes by subcritical water, representing a safe and economic alternative in the creation of value chains. Pumpkin, hemp, and flax seed cakes were treated with subcritical water in nitrogen and carbon-dioxide atmospheres, as well as in nitrogen atmosphere with the addition of acid catalyst. The degradation of carbohydrate fraction was studied by quantifying sugars and sugar degradation products in the obtained extracts. The extracts obtained under different conditions were further compared chemically with respect to total phenols and flavonoids, as well as to the content of individual phenolic compounds. Furthermore, the effects of subcritical water treatment conditions on antioxidant, antiradical and cytotoxic properties of thus obtained extracts were defined and discussed.

Chemical and bioactivity screening of subcritical water extracts of chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) stems.

Subcritical water extracts of chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) stems were chemically and biologically characterised. Chemical profile was defined by GC-MS analysis whereas anti-oxidant, anti-diabetic and tyrosinase-inhibitory activities of the extracts were investigated by in vitro assays. Antioxidant activity assays revealed strong activity against DPPH radical (IC50 = 0.1 mg/mL) and reducing power (IC50 = 0.25 mg/mL). The extracts demonstrated remarkable amylase (0.59 mmol ACAE/g) and glucosidase (7.50 mmol ACAE/g) inhibitory effects. Anti-tyrosinase activity of aronia stem extracts obtained by subcritical water was calculated to be 15.87 mg KAE/g extract. GC-MS analysis of chokeberry stem subcritical water extracts revealed the presence of different chemical classes. The compounds present in the highest concentrations were polyols arabitol (13.7%), xylitol (3.5%), and glycerol (1.96%), as well as sugars such as fructose (3.04%), ribose (1.99%) and xylulose (1.18%).

Autofermentation of Chamomile Ligulate Flowers Promote Antitumor Effects in vitro.

In the frame of this paper, the enzyme-assisted hydrolysis coupled with ultrasound and Soxhlet extraction was applied in order to get extracts of chamomile ligulate flowers (CLF). Obtained extracts were characterized in terms to their apigenin and apigenin glucoside composition, as well as antiproliferative potential against tumour cells. Antioxidant activity was determined by two different assays based on different mechanisms showing that autofermented extracts have higher reduction potential. Autofermented extracts prepared by ultrasound and Soxhlet extraction had a stronger impact on the treated carcinoma (HeLa and NCI-H358) and leukemia (K562) cells' growth reduction in comparison to the native extracts, 30-35% greater inhibition at the lowest concentration (0.01 mg/mL), in two observed time points (48 and 72 h). Leukemia cells are more sensitive to all tested extracts. The autofermented CLF extracts with highest antiproliferative efficacy induced morphological changes and apoptosis in the HeLa cells. Obtained results clearly showed that the combination of enzymatic hydrolysis with cavitation phenomenon results in extracts with higher apigenin content and increased biological potential.

The influence of the extraction temperature on polyphenolic profiles and bioactivity of chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) subcritical water extracts.

The main goal of this research was to determine the relationship among chemical structure, bioactivity and temperature of chamomile during subcritical water extraction in isobaric conditions (45 bar) at seven different temperatures (65-210 °C). The influence of temperature on phenolic profiles was defined by UHPLC-HESI-MS/MS. The overall results indicate that the presence of conjugated double bonds, side chains, glucose moiety or ether moiety in molecules influence the efficiency of polyphenols' extraction in subcritical water. In terms of antioxidant activity, the extracts were the most active towards ABTS radicals (IC50 = 7.3-16.8 µg/mL), whereby temperature of 150 °C was optimal. On the other hand, the extracts obtained at 115 °C showed highest cytotoxicity. Inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase was the highest at 65 and 85 °C, i.e. 0.51 and 4.13 mmolAE/g, respectively. Activity against tyrosinase was the highest at 210 °C (17.92 mgKAE/g). The data showed that different non-phenolic compounds may also participate in bio-activities of the extracts.