RESUMO
Drug-tolerant persister cells (persisters) evade apoptosis upon targeted and conventional cancer therapies and represent a major non-genetic barrier to effective cancer treatment. Here, we show that cells that survive treatment with pro-apoptotic BH3 mimetics display a persister phenotype that includes colonization and metastasis in vivo and increased sensitivity toward ferroptosis by GPX4 inhibition. We found that sublethal mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP) and holocytochrome c release are key requirements for the generation of the persister phenotype. The generation of persisters is independent of apoptosome formation and caspase activation, but instead, cytosolic cytochrome c induces the activation of heme-regulated inhibitor (HRI) kinase and engagement of the integrated stress response (ISR) with the consequent synthesis of ATF4, all of which are required for the persister phenotype. Our results reveal that sublethal cytochrome c release couples sublethal MOMP to caspase-independent initiation of an ATF4-dependent, drug-tolerant persister phenotype.
Assuntos
Citocromos c , Neoplasias/tratamento farmacológico , Animais , Apoptose , Proteínas de Transporte , Caspases/metabolismo , Citocromos c/metabolismo , Resistencia a Medicamentos Antineoplásicos , Humanos , Camundongos , Mitocôndrias/metabolismoRESUMO
Through their many and varied metabolic functions, mitochondria power life. Paradoxically, mitochondria also have a central role in apoptotic cell death. Upon induction of mitochondrial apoptosis, mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP) usually commits a cell to die. Apoptotic signalling downstream of MOMP involves cytochrome c release from mitochondria and subsequent caspase activation. As such, targeting MOMP in order to manipulate cell death holds tremendous therapeutic potential across different diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. In this Review, we discuss new insights into how mitochondria regulate apoptotic cell death. Surprisingly, recent data demonstrate that besides eliciting caspase activation, MOMP engages various pro-inflammatory signalling functions. As we highlight, together with new findings demonstrating cell survival following MOMP, this pro-inflammatory role suggests that mitochondria-derived signalling downstream of pro-apoptotic cues may also have non-lethal functions. Finally, we discuss the importance and roles of mitochondria in other forms of regulated cell death, including necroptosis, ferroptosis and pyroptosis. Collectively, these new findings offer exciting, unexplored opportunities to target mitochondrial regulation of cell death for clinical benefit.
Assuntos
Apoptose/fisiologia , Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Mitocôndrias/fisiologia , Animais , Caspases/metabolismo , Citocromos c/metabolismo , Humanos , Membranas Mitocondriais/metabolismo , Membranas Mitocondriais/fisiologia , Transdução de SinaisRESUMO
Receptor-interacting protein kinase-3 (RIPK3) is an activator of necroptotic cell death, but recent work has implicated additional roles for RIPK3 in inflammatory signaling independent of cell death. However, while necroptosis has been shown to contribute to antiviral immunity, death-independent roles for RIPK3 in host defense have not been demonstrated. Using a mouse model of West Nile virus (WNV) encephalitis, we show that RIPK3 restricts WNV pathogenesis independently of cell death. Ripk3-/- mice exhibited enhanced mortality compared to wild-type (WT) controls, while mice lacking the necroptotic effector MLKL, or both MLKL and caspase-8, were unaffected. The enhanced susceptibility of Ripk3-/- mice arose from suppressed neuronal chemokine expression and decreased central nervous system (CNS) recruitment of T lymphocytes and inflammatory myeloid cells, while peripheral immunity remained intact. These data identify pleiotropic functions for RIPK3 in the restriction of viral pathogenesis and implicate RIPK3 as a key coordinator of immune responses within the CNS.
Assuntos
Proteína Serina-Treonina Quinases de Interação com Receptores/metabolismo , Febre do Nilo Ocidental/imunologia , Vírus do Nilo Ocidental/fisiologia , Animais , Sistema Nervoso Central/metabolismo , Quimiocinas/imunologia , Leucócitos/imunologia , Macrófagos/imunologia , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Necrose , Neurônios/metabolismoRESUMO
Senescent cells drive age-related tissue dysfunction partially through the induction of a chronic senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP)1. Mitochondria are major regulators of the SASP; however, the underlying mechanisms have not been elucidated2. Mitochondria are often essential for apoptosis, a cell fate distinct from cellular senescence. During apoptosis, widespread mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP) commits a cell to die3. Here we find that MOMP occurring in a subset of mitochondria is a feature of cellular senescence. This process, called minority MOMP (miMOMP), requires BAX and BAK macropores enabling the release of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) into the cytosol. Cytosolic mtDNA in turn activates the cGAS-STING pathway, a major regulator of the SASP. We find that inhibition of MOMP in vivo decreases inflammatory markers and improves healthspan in aged mice. Our results reveal that apoptosis and senescence are regulated by similar mitochondria-dependent mechanisms and that sublethal mitochondrial apoptotic stress is a major driver of the SASP. We provide proof-of-concept that inhibition of miMOMP-induced inflammation may be a therapeutic route to improve healthspan.
Assuntos
Apoptose , Senescência Celular , Citosol , DNA Mitocondrial , Mitocôndrias , Animais , Camundongos , Citosol/metabolismo , DNA Mitocondrial/metabolismo , Mitocôndrias/genética , Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Necrose Dirigida por Permeabilidade Transmembrânica da Mitocôndria , Estudo de Prova de Conceito , Inflamação/metabolismo , Fenótipo , Longevidade , Envelhecimento SaudávelRESUMO
Mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilisation (MOMP) is often essential for apoptosis, by enabling cytochrome c release that leads to caspase activation and rapid cell death. Recently, MOMP has been shown to be inherently pro-inflammatory with emerging cellular roles, including its ability to elicit anti-tumour immunity. Nonetheless, how MOMP triggers inflammation and how the cell regulates this remains poorly defined. We find that upon MOMP, many proteins localised either to inner or outer mitochondrial membranes are ubiquitylated in a promiscuous manner. This extensive ubiquitylation serves to recruit the essential adaptor molecule NEMO, leading to the activation of pro-inflammatory NF-κB signalling. We show that disruption of mitochondrial outer membrane integrity through different means leads to the engagement of a similar pro-inflammatory signalling platform. Therefore, mitochondrial integrity directly controls inflammation, such that permeabilised mitochondria initiate NF-κB signalling.
Assuntos
NF-kappa B , Ubiquitina , Humanos , NF-kappa B/genética , NF-kappa B/metabolismo , Ubiquitina/metabolismo , Membranas Mitocondriais/metabolismo , Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Apoptose/fisiologia , Inflamação/metabolismoRESUMO
Sensing nutrient availability is essential for appropriate cellular growth, and mTORC1 is a major regulator of this process. Mechanisms causing mTORC1 activation are, however, complex and diverse. We report here an additional important step in the activation of mTORC1, which regulates the efflux of amino acids from lysosomes into the cytoplasm. This process requires DRAM-1, which binds the membrane carrier protein SCAMP3 and the amino acid transporters SLC1A5 and LAT1, directing them to lysosomes and permitting efficient mTORC1 activation. Consequently, we show that loss of DRAM-1 also impacts pathways regulated by mTORC1, including insulin signaling, glycemic balance, and adipocyte differentiation. Interestingly, although DRAM-1 can promote autophagy, this effect on mTORC1 is autophagy independent, and autophagy only becomes important for mTORC1 activation when DRAM-1 is deleted. These findings provide important insights into mTORC1 activation and highlight the importance of DRAM-1 in growth control, metabolic homeostasis, and differentiation.
Assuntos
Aminoácidos/metabolismo , Proteína 7 Relacionada à Autofagia/metabolismo , Metabolismo Energético , Lisossomos/enzimologia , Alvo Mecanístico do Complexo 1 de Rapamicina/metabolismo , Proteínas de Membrana/metabolismo , Células 3T3-L1 , Adipócitos/enzimologia , Adipogenia , Sistema ASC de Transporte de Aminoácidos/genética , Sistema ASC de Transporte de Aminoácidos/metabolismo , Sistema y+L de Transporte de Aminoácidos/genética , Sistema y+L de Transporte de Aminoácidos/metabolismo , Animais , Proteína 7 Relacionada à Autofagia/genética , Glicemia/metabolismo , Proteínas de Transporte/genética , Proteínas de Transporte/metabolismo , Ativação Enzimática , Células HEK293 , Células HeLa , Humanos , Insulina/sangue , Transportador 1 de Aminoácidos Neutros Grandes/genética , Transportador 1 de Aminoácidos Neutros Grandes/metabolismo , Masculino , Alvo Mecanístico do Complexo 1 de Rapamicina/genética , Proteínas de Membrana/deficiência , Proteínas de Membrana/genética , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Camundongos Knockout , Antígenos de Histocompatibilidade Menor/genética , Antígenos de Histocompatibilidade Menor/metabolismo , Transporte ProteicoRESUMO
The anti-apoptotic BCL-2 protein family regulates cancer cell survival, thus it represents an important therapeutic target. Indeed, a drug class, called BH3-mimetics, have been developed to directly target BCL2 proteins and promote cancer cell death. Conventional wisdom suggests that the primary anti-cancer effect of BCL-2 inhibition is through induction of cancer cell death. However, a recent study by Zhao and colleagues describes that BCL-2 inhibition also enhances the function of classical dendritic cells, unleashing their role in immunosurveillance, promoting T cell immunity and tumour regression. Thus, inhibiting anti-apoptotic BCL-2 function may have a multi-pronged anti-tumour action.
Assuntos
Antineoplásicos , Neoplasias , Humanos , Apoptose , Proteínas Proto-Oncogênicas c-bcl-2/metabolismo , Neoplasias/tratamento farmacológico , Neoplasias/metabolismo , Antineoplásicos/farmacologia , Antineoplásicos/uso terapêutico , Proteínas Reguladoras de Apoptose/farmacologia , Proteínas Reguladoras de Apoptose/uso terapêutico , Linhagem Celular TumoralRESUMO
Serving as an innate defence mechanism, invading pathogens elicit a broad inflammatory response in cells. In this issue, Brokatzky et al (2019) report that pathogens can cause activation of BAX/BAK which permeabilises a limited number of mitochondria. Induction of DNA damage, or release of mtDNA, triggers STING-dependent pro-inflammatory cytokine expression and secretion, revealing an unexpected role for the mitochondrial apoptotic machinery in immune defence.
Assuntos
Mitocôndrias/genética , Proteína Killer-Antagonista Homóloga a bcl-2 , Apoptose , Citocinas , DNA MitocondrialRESUMO
Cytosolic DNA is recognized by the innate immune system as a potential threat. During apoptotic cell death, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) release activates the DNA sensor cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) to promote a pro-inflammatory type I interferon response. Inflammation following mtDNA release during apoptotic cell death can be exploited to engage anti-tumor immunity and represents a potential avenue for cancer therapy. Additionally, various studies have described leakage of mtDNA, independent of cell death, with different underlying cues such as pathogenic infections, changes in mtDNA packaging, mtDNA stress or reduced mitochondrial clearance. The interferon response in these scenarios can be beneficial but also potentially disadvantageous, as suggested by a variety of disease phenotypes. In this review, we discuss mechanisms underlying mtDNA release governed by cell death pathways and summarize release mechanisms independent of cell death. We further highlight the similarities and differences in mtDNA release pathways, outlining gaps in our knowledge and questions for further research. Together, a deeper understanding of how and when mtDNA is released may enable the development of drugs to specifically target or inhibit mtDNA release in different disease settings.
Assuntos
DNA Mitocondrial , Mitocôndrias , Humanos , DNA Mitocondrial/metabolismo , Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Inflamação/metabolismo , Apoptose , Interferons/metabolismoRESUMO
During apoptosis, the mitochondrial outer membrane is permeabilized, leading to the release of cytochrome c that activates downstream caspases. Mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP) has historically been thought to occur synchronously and completely throughout a cell, leading to rapid caspase activation and apoptosis. Using a new imaging approach, we demonstrate that MOMP is not an all-or-nothing event. Rather, we find that a minority of mitochondria can undergo MOMP in a stress-regulated manner, a phenomenon we term "minority MOMP." Crucially, minority MOMP leads to limited caspase activation, which is insufficient to trigger cell death. Instead, this caspase activity leads to DNA damage that, in turn, promotes genomic instability, cellular transformation, and tumorigenesis. Our data demonstrate that, in contrast to its well-established tumor suppressor function, apoptosis also has oncogenic potential that is regulated by the extent of MOMP. These findings have important implications for oncogenesis following either physiological or therapeutic engagement of apoptosis.
Assuntos
Apoptose/fisiologia , Dano ao DNA , Instabilidade Genômica , Membranas Mitocondriais/fisiologia , Animais , Apoptose/efeitos dos fármacos , Compostos de Bifenilo/farmacologia , Western Blotting , Caspases/metabolismo , Linhagem Celular Tumoral , Inibidor de Quinase Dependente de Ciclina p19/deficiência , Inibidor de Quinase Dependente de Ciclina p19/genética , Relação Dose-Resposta a Droga , Embrião de Mamíferos/citologia , Fibroblastos/efeitos dos fármacos , Fibroblastos/metabolismo , Células HCT116 , Células HeLa , Histonas/metabolismo , Humanos , Células MCF-7 , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Camundongos Knockout , Microscopia Confocal , Nitrofenóis/farmacologia , Permeabilidade , Piperazinas/farmacologia , Proteínas Proto-Oncogênicas c-bcl-2/antagonistas & inibidores , Proteínas Proto-Oncogênicas c-bcl-2/metabolismo , Estaurosporina/farmacologia , Sulfonamidas/farmacologia , Fatores de TempoRESUMO
During apoptosis, pro-apoptotic BAX and BAK are activated, causing mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilisation (MOMP), caspase activation and cell death. However, even in the absence of caspase activity, cells usually die following MOMP Such caspase-independent cell death is accompanied by inflammation that requires mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) activation of cGAS-STING signalling. Because the mitochondrial inner membrane is thought to remain intact during apoptosis, we sought to address how matrix mtDNA could activate the cytosolic cGAS-STING signalling pathway. Using super-resolution imaging, we show that mtDNA is efficiently released from mitochondria following MOMP In a temporal manner, we find that following MOMP, BAX/BAK-mediated mitochondrial outer membrane pores gradually widen. This allows extrusion of the mitochondrial inner membrane into the cytosol whereupon it permeablises allowing mtDNA release. Our data demonstrate that mitochondrial inner membrane permeabilisation (MIMP) can occur during cell death following BAX/BAK-dependent MOMP Importantly, by enabling the cytosolic release of mtDNA, inner membrane permeabilisation underpins the immunogenic effects of caspase-independent cell death.
Assuntos
Apoptose , DNA Mitocondrial/metabolismo , Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Membranas Mitocondriais/metabolismo , Animais , Linhagem Celular Tumoral , DNA Mitocondrial/genética , Humanos , Proteínas de Membrana/genética , Proteínas de Membrana/metabolismo , Camundongos , Mitocôndrias/genética , Nucleotidiltransferases/genética , Nucleotidiltransferases/metabolismo , PermeabilidadeRESUMO
The use of bacteria as an alternative cancer therapy has been reinvestigated in recent years. SL7207: an auxotrophic Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium aroA mutant with immune-stimulatory potential has proven a promising strain for this purpose. Here, we show that systemic administration of SL7207 induces melanoma tumor growth arrest in vivo, with greater survival of the SL7207-treated group compared to control PBS-treated mice. Administration of SL7207 is accompanied by a change in the immune phenotype of the tumor-infiltrating cells toward pro-inflammatory, with expression of the TH 1 cytokines IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-12 significantly increased. Interestingly, Ly6C+ MHCII+ monocytes were recruited to the tumors following SL7207 treatment and were pro-inflammatory. Accordingly, the abrogation of these infiltrating monocytes using clodronate liposomes prevented SL7207-induced tumor growth inhibition. These data demonstrate a previously unappreciated role for infiltrating inflammatory monocytes underlying bacterial-mediated tumor growth inhibition. This information highlights a possible novel role for monocytes in controlling tumor growth, contributing to our understanding of the immune responses required for successful immunotherapy of cancer.
Assuntos
Imunoterapia , Melanoma Experimental , Monócitos/imunologia , Salmonella typhimurium/imunologia , Células Th1/imunologia , Animais , Citocinas/imunologia , Feminino , Melanoma Experimental/imunologia , Melanoma Experimental/terapia , Camundongos , Salmonella typhimurium/genéticaRESUMO
Mitochondria are cellular organelles that orchestrate a vast range of biological processes, from energy production and metabolism to cell death and inflammation. Despite this seemingly symbiotic relationship, mitochondria harbour within them a potent agonist of innate immunity: their own genome. Release of mitochondrial DNA into the cytoplasm and out into the extracellular milieu activates a plethora of different pattern recognition receptors and innate immune responses, including cGAS-STING, TLR9 and inflammasome formation leading to, among others, robust type I interferon responses. In this Review, we discuss how mtDNA can be released from the mitochondria, the various inflammatory pathways triggered by mtDNA release and its myriad biological consequences for health and disease.
Assuntos
DNA Mitocondrial , Mitocôndrias , DNA Mitocondrial/genética , Humanos , Imunidade Inata/genética , Inflamação/genética , Mitocôndrias/genética , Receptores de Reconhecimento de PadrãoRESUMO
Mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP) is often required for activation of the caspase proteases that cause apoptotic cell death. Various intermembrane space (IMS) proteins, such as cytochrome c, promote caspase activation following their mitochondrial release. As a consequence, mitochondrial outer membrane integrity is highly controlled, primarily through interactions between pro- and anti-apoptotic members of the B cell lymphoma 2 (BCL-2) protein family. Following MOMP by pro-apoptotic BCL-2-associated X protein (BAX) or BCL-2 antagonist or killer (BAK), additional regulatory mechanisms govern the mitochondrial release of IMS proteins and caspase activity. MOMP typically leads to cell death irrespective of caspase activity by causing a progressive decline in mitochondrial function, although cells can survive this under certain circumstances, which may have pathophysiological consequences.
Assuntos
Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Membranas Mitocondriais/metabolismo , Animais , Caspases/metabolismo , Morte Celular , Humanos , Proteína X Associada a bcl-2/farmacocinéticaRESUMO
Mitochondria are organelles central to myriad cellular processes. To maintain mitochondrial health, various processes co-operate at both the molecular and organelle level. At the molecular level, mitochondria can sense imbalances in their homeostasis and adapt to these by signaling to the nucleus. This mito-nuclear communication leads to the expression of nuclear stress response genes. Upon external stimuli, mitochondria can also alter their morphology accordingly, by inducing fission or fusion. In an extreme situation, mitochondria are degraded by mitophagy. Adequate function and regulation of these mitochondrial quality control pathways are crucial for cellular homeostasis. As we discuss, alterations in these processes have been linked to several pathologies including neurodegenerative diseases and cancer.
Assuntos
Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Dinâmica Mitocondrial , Mitofagia , Animais , Humanos , Mitocôndrias/patologia , Neoplasias/metabolismo , Neoplasias/patologia , Doenças Neurodegenerativas/metabolismo , Doenças Neurodegenerativas/patologia , Proteínas Quinases/metabolismo , Transdução de Sinais , Ubiquitina-Proteína Ligases/metabolismoRESUMO
Cell senescence is an important tumour suppressor mechanism and driver of ageing. Both functions are dependent on the development of the senescent phenotype, which involves an overproduction of pro-inflammatory and pro-oxidant signals. However, the exact mechanisms regulating these phenotypes remain poorly understood. Here, we show the critical role of mitochondria in cellular senescence. In multiple models of senescence, absence of mitochondria reduced a spectrum of senescence effectors and phenotypes while preserving ATP production via enhanced glycolysis. Global transcriptomic analysis by RNA sequencing revealed that a vast number of senescent-associated changes are dependent on mitochondria, particularly the pro-inflammatory phenotype. Mechanistically, we show that the ATM, Akt and mTORC1 phosphorylation cascade integrates signals from the DNA damage response (DDR) towards PGC-1ß-dependent mitochondrial biogenesis, contributing to aROS-mediated activation of the DDR and cell cycle arrest. Finally, we demonstrate that the reduction in mitochondrial content in vivo, by either mTORC1 inhibition or PGC-1ß deletion, prevents senescence in the ageing mouse liver. Our results suggest that mitochondria are a candidate target for interventions to reduce the deleterious impact of senescence in ageing tissues.
Assuntos
Envelhecimento/fisiologia , Mitocôndrias/fisiologia , Animais , Linhagem Celular , Humanos , Camundongos , Modelos Biológicos , FenótipoRESUMO
Autophagy is a lysosomal degradation pathway that converts macromolecules into substrates for energy production during nutrient-scarce conditions such as those encountered in tumor microenvironments. Constitutive mitochondrial uptake of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca²âº mediated by inositol triphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) maintains cellular bioenergetics, thus suppressing autophagy. We show that the ER membrane protein Bax inhibitor-1 (BI-1) promotes autophagy in an IP3R-dependent manner. By reducing steady-state levels of ER Ca²âº via IP3Rs, BI-1 influences mitochondrial bioenergetics, reducing oxygen consumption, impacting cellular ATP levels, and stimulating autophagy. Furthermore, BI-1-deficient mice show reduced basal autophagy, and experimentally reducing BI-1 expression impairs tumor xenograft growth in vivo. BI-1's ability to promote autophagy could be dissociated from its known function as a modulator of IRE1 signaling in the context of ER stress. The results reveal BI-1 as a novel autophagy regulator that bridges Ca²âº signaling between ER and mitochondria, reducing cellular oxygen consumption and contributing to cellular resilience in the face of metabolic stress.
Assuntos
Proteínas Reguladoras de Apoptose/metabolismo , Autofagia/imunologia , Cálcio/metabolismo , Retículo Endoplasmático/metabolismo , Metabolismo Energético , Proteínas de Membrana/metabolismo , Animais , Proteínas Reguladoras de Apoptose/genética , Autofagia/genética , Linhagem Celular Tumoral , Endorribonucleases/metabolismo , Humanos , Macrófagos/imunologia , Macrófagos/microbiologia , Proteínas de Membrana/genética , Camundongos , Camundongos Knockout , Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Consumo de Oxigênio , Proteínas Serina-Treonina Quinases/metabolismo , ATPases Transportadoras de Cálcio do Retículo Sarcoplasmático/metabolismo , Infecções Estreptocócicas/imunologia , Streptococcus/imunologia , Estresse Fisiológico , Ensaios Antitumorais Modelo de XenoenxertoRESUMO
The Bcl-2 proteins Bax and Bak can permeabilize the outer mitochondrial membrane and commit cells to apoptosis. Pro-survival Bcl-2 proteins control Bax by constant retrotranslocation into the cytosol of healthy cells. The stabilization of cytosolic Bax raises the question whether the functionally redundant but largely mitochondrial Bak shares this level of regulation. Here we report that Bak is retrotranslocated from the mitochondria by pro-survival Bcl-2 proteins. Bak is present in the cytosol of human cells and tissues, but low shuttling rates cause predominant mitochondrial Bak localization. Interchanging the membrane anchors of Bax and Bak reverses their subcellular localization compared to the wild-type proteins. Strikingly, the reduction of Bax shuttling to the level of Bak retrotranslocation results in full Bax toxicity even in absence of apoptosis induction. Thus, fast Bax retrotranslocation is required to protect cells from commitment to programmed death.
Assuntos
Apoptose/fisiologia , Citosol/metabolismo , Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Proteínas Mitocondriais/metabolismo , Proteína Killer-Antagonista Homóloga a bcl-2/metabolismo , Proteína X Associada a bcl-2/metabolismo , Linhagem Celular , Humanos , Mitocôndrias/genética , Proteínas Mitocondriais/genética , Transporte Proteico/fisiologia , Proteína Killer-Antagonista Homóloga a bcl-2/genética , Proteína X Associada a bcl-2/genéticaRESUMO
Necroptosis is a form of programmed cell death defined by activation of the kinase receptor interacting protein kinase 3 and its downstream effector, the pseudokinase mixed lineage kinase domain-like (MLKL). Activated MLKL translocates to the cell membrane and disrupts it, leading to loss of cellular ion homeostasis. In this study, we use a system in which this event can be specifically triggered by a small-molecule ligand to show that MLKL activation is sufficient to induce the processing and release of bioactive IL-1ß. MLKL activation triggers potassium efflux and assembly of the NLRP3 inflammasome, which is required for the processing and activity of IL-1ß released during necroptosis. Notably, MLKL activation also causes cell membrane disruption, which allows efficient release of IL-1ß independently of the recently described pyroptotic effector gasdermin-D. Taken together, our findings indicate that MLKL is an endogenous activator of the NLRP3 inflammasome, and that MLKL activation provides a mechanism for concurrent processing and release of IL-1ß independently of gasdermin-D.